LESSON ONE

LESSON ONE 25.07.2015 07:34

LESSON ONE
GRAMMAR
Інфінітив (The Infinitive, to V)
Інфінітив – це неособова форма дієслова, яка тільки називає дію і відповідає на питання “що робити?”, безвідносно до часу дії, особи і числа: to write – писати, to come – приходити. В українській мові інфінітиву відповідає дієслово в неозначеній формі як доконаного, так і недоконаного виду: to read – читати, прочитати. Інфінітив має форми активного та пасивного стану, часу, може мати при собі обставину, прямий додаток. Кожній групі часів відповідає своя форма інфінітиву.
В науково-технічній літературі широко використовується розщеплений інфінітив (split infinitive) типу to + adv. + v
наприклад, to clearly understand – чітко розуміти, to fully realize – повністю усвідомлювати.
В англійській мові інфінітив має одну просту і п’ять складних форм. Інфінітив перехідних дієслів має форму часу і стану, а неперехідних – тільки часу.
Часова форма інфінітива має відносне, а не абсолютне значення. Неозначений (Indefinite) інфінітив (як активного, так і пасивного стану) показує на одночасність дії, вираженої інфінітивом, з дією, вираженою дієсловом – присудком, тобто може відноситися до теперішнього, майбутнього часу.

 

Форми інфінітиву
Active Passive Виражає дію
Indefinite to ask
to write to be asked
to be written 1. Одночасно з присудком
2. Майбутня
3. Безвідносно до часу
Continuous to be asking
to be writing ––– Одночасно з присудком
Продовжена
Perfect to have asked
to have written to have been asked
to have been written Передуюча присудку
Perfect
Continious to have been asking
to have been writing ––– Передуюча присудку
Продовжена

Функції інфінітиву в реченні
Синтаксичні функції інфінітиву Приклади перекладу
Subject
(підмет)

 

Compound predicate
(іменний складний присудок)

Complex predicate
(складений дієслівний присудок)

Direct object
(прямий додаток)

Adverbial Modifier of Purpose
(обставина мети)

 

 

To build the power stations on this river means to supply the surrounding villages with electrical energy. Побудувати електростанцію на цій річці – значить забезпечити сусідні села електроенергією.

Our duty is to help this student.
Наш обов’язок – допомогти цьому студентові.

He could not answer this question.
Він не міг відповісти на це питання.

He likes to solve difficult problems.
Він любить вирішувати складні питання.

To put nature to the service of man requires first of all precise knowledge – a guarantee of technical progress. Щоб поставити природу на службу людині, потрібні перш за все точні знання – гарантія технічного прогресу.

In order to master English you must work hard.
Щоб оволодіти англійською мовою, ви повинні багато працювати.

 

Синтаксичні функції інфінітиву Приклади перекладу
Attribute
(означення)

Передає значення українського означального речення із значенням обов’язковості чи майбутнього часу.

The text to be translated is very difficult.
Текст, який треба перекласти, дуже важкий.

Після слів: the first, the last, the only, the next
інфінітив перекладається дієсловом в особовій формі і в тому ж часі, що й присудок (без модальності)
Newton was the first to discover the law of gravitation. Ньютон першим відкрив закон тяжіння.
Infinitive-Paranthesis
(вставний член на початку речення) Відокремлюються комою
To sum up … Підсумовуючи,
To summarise … Слід сказати, що...
To begin with … Перш за все
To be sure … Без сумніву
To begin with, let us discuss the most complicated problems.
Перш за все давайте обміркуємо найскладніші проблеми.
Complex Object
Об’єктний інфінітивний зворот

Complex subject
Суб’єктний інфінітивний зворот

 

 

 

Інфінітивний
прийменниковий
зворот S+P+Noun/Pronoun+Infinitive
We know him to be working at this problem.
Ми знаємо, що він працює над цією проблемою.

S+P(Passive)+Infinitive
The computer is known to perform complicated calcula-tions.
Відомо, що комп’ютер виконує складні обчислення.
S+P(Active)+Infinitive
To seem, to happen, to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.
This mineral seems to have been discovered in Asia Minor.
Здається, цей мінерал був найдений в Малій Азії.

For +Noun /Pronoun + Infinitive.
It is necessary for the two elements to have the same dimensions.
Необхідно, щоб обидві деталі мали однакові розміри.

 

 

SECTION I
Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension.
1. Read the following international words and give their Ukrainian equivalents:
planet, ecology, effect, natural, negative, toxic, ozone, radiation, global, standard, conservation, flora, fauna.
2. Memorize the folloving words and expressions necessary to comprehend the text:
the environment – навколишнє середовище
environmental protection – захист навколишнього середовища
humanity – людство
hardly – ледве, навряд чи
landmark – орієнтир, поворотний пункт
majority – більшість
image – образ, подоба, копія
to become firmly established – укоренятися, укоренитися
the state – стан
effect – вплив
the natural world – світ природи
soil – грунт
toxic wastes – токсичні відходи
ozone hole – озонова діра
drought – посуха
chemicals – хімічні речовини
to be concerned about – турбуватися
drastic – рішучий, різкий
devastating – руйнівний
hurricane – ураган
typical – типовий
to be rare – рідко відбуватися
warming-up process – процес потепління
major – головний
the greenhouse effect – парниковий ефект
to create – створювати
carbon dioxide – двоокис вуглецю
industrial facilities – промислові підприємства
to be of vital importance – бути життєво важливим
to cut down – скорочувати
the release of gases – викид газів
to contribute to – сприяти, робити вклад
to get worried about smth. – бути стурбованим, занепокоєнним
fairly – досить
deterioration – погіршення
to tell on – відбиватися на
healthy – здоровий
to solve – вирішувати
to combine efforts – об’єднати зусилля
to raise safety standards – підвищувати вимоги до техніки безпеки
to adequately process – належно перероблювати промислові
byproducts of industry промислові відходи
to monitor – контролювати
an international centre for – міжнародний центр з надання
emergency environment термінової екологічної допомоги
assistance
measure – міра, захід
to prevent – захищати, попереджувати
dangerous – небезпечний
illness – хвороба
disease – хвороба, слабість, недуга
free-of-waste production – безвідходне
man's lofty calling – високе призначення
3. Read the text and carry out the following assignments:
a) find the paragraph describing the major reason for the global warming-up process;
b) find the sentence telling about the greenhouse effect;
c) choose the best Ukrainian title expressing the main idea of the text:
TEXT A
THE PROBLEM OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Environmental protection is the main problem facing humanity nowadays. It is a system of measures aimed at the conservation, rational utilization, and, where possible, renewal of natural resources, both living (flora and fauna) and non-living (picturesque landscapes, natural and cultural landmarks). These measures have also come to include the control and elimination of environmental pollution (air, water, soil) and the maintenance of balanced ecosystems.
The image of a sick planet has become firmly established in the public mind lately. Ten years ago the word “ecology” hardly meant anything for the majority of people, but today we can’t help bearing it in our minds. It has happened because of the growing effect of the rapid industrial development of the natural world which has negative features of its own. As a matter of fact the state of environment has greatly worsened of late.
There is no doubt that soil, water and air are contaminated with toxic wastes. Over the past few years we have been constantly speaking about ozone holes, draughts, high level of radiation, about food contaminated with chemicals. Scientists in many countries are very much concerned about drastic changes in weather patterns. The worst drought, the mildest winter and the most devastating hurricanes have become typical in those parts of the world where they used to be a rare occurence. Weather patterns have been changing recently due to the global warming-up process and its major reason – the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is created by carbon dioxide emissions, released by industrial facilities and a constantly increasing number of cars. Thus it is of vital importance that the world should start cutting down the release of gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect.
What is the reason for people getting so much worried about the state of environment? The answer to this question is fairly simple. The thing is the deterioration of the environment is telling heavily on people. They are paying for this with their health. And it is obvious what all people need is a healthy environment.
Concern about the preservation of the environment and its protection from pollution as well as concern about our limited natural resources has given rise to a powerful movement throughout the world. This movement is called environmentalism from the English word “environment”.
As many as 159 countries – members of the United Nations Organization – have set up environmental protection agencies. They have worked out hundreds of projects to protect nature. The love of nature and everything living around us is an indispensable part of humanism, of man’s lofty calling in the Earth.
To solve this burning problem it is necessary for people to combine efforts, to raise safety standards at all industrial facilities, to adequately process by-products of industry, to set up an international space laboratory, to monitor the state of environment and set up an international centre for emergency environmental assistance. All these measures will help us to solve these important problems and prevent us from dangerous illnesses and diseases.
The problem of environmental protection is a great concern of the Ukrainian government, especially after the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear plant in April 1986. The Ministry of Environmental Protection was founded in Ukraine. There was also set up a special Supreme Soviet Committee. Their tasks are to control the state of environment and sources of pollution, to protect the water resources of the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov, rivers and 1akes, to extend the network of nature reserves and to maintain cooperation with international ecology organizations.
Compaining for environmental protection is supported by public organizations and individuals. The Ukrainian Green Party is very active today. “Zeleny Svit” is the Ukrainian ecological newspaper. It calls on protection of the natural wealth and on using it in a more careful and economical manner for the benefit of the present and future generations. The role of Ukraine in the solution of ecological problems has greatly increased.
4. Answer the following questions on the text:
1. What is the main problem facing humanity nowadays?
2. How do you understand the term “environmental protection”?
3. What image has become firmly established in the public mind lately?
4. What are soil, water and air contaminated with?
5. What are specialists of many countries concerned about?
6. Why have the water patterns changed recently?
7. What is the major reason for the global warming-up process?
8. What is the greenhouse effect created by?
9. Why do people get much worried about the state of the environment?
10. What does the term “environmentalism” mean?
11. How many countries have set up environmental agencies?
12. What is necessary to do to solve the problem of environmental protection?
13. What measures will help us to prevent dangerous illnesses and diseases?
14. What are the tasks of a special Supreme Soviet Committee and the Ministry of Environmental Protection?
15. What public organizations and individuals do you know?
16. Can you name any Ukrainian scientists and writers who have contributed to nature protection?
5. Choose the one word which fits best each blank:
1. Ecology is a ... common for all mankind (problem, question, object). 2. All people actively ... in international cooperation on the protection of the natural habitat (participate, take part, concern). 3. Environmental problems ... their relatively short history, have already been an object of a number of international discussions (despite, in spite of, notwithstanding). 4. They have worked out hundreds of projects to protect ... (themselves, us, nature). 5. “Zeleny Svit” is the Ukrainian ecological ... (book, magazine, newspaper).
6. Translate into English using active vocabulary of the text:
У перекладі з англійської мови “грінпіс” означає “зелений світ”. “Грін-піс” – міжнародна організація захисників навколишнього середовища. Ця організація виникла на початку 70-х років ХХ століття. Сьогодні до цієї організації належать майже 2 млн. чоловік із 15 країн. Міжнародна штаб-квартира (headquaters, H.Q.) організації розташована в Лондоні. Організація має своїх представників у багатьох країнах.
7. Suggest subtitles for each paragraph of the text.

8. Express the main idea of the text in Ukrainian in the shortest possible way and write down your annotation.
9. Render the text according to your own plan.
SECTION II
Structure and Written Expression.
1. Write out of the text the sentences with the infinitives, comment on their forms and functions and translate them into Ukrainian.
2. Translate into English using the correct form of the infinitive:
1. Я радий, що дав вам цю книжку про екологію. 2. Я радий, що мені дали цю книжку з екології. 3. Ми хочемо проінформувати вас про екологічну експе¬дицію. 4. Вони дуже раді, що їх запросили на цю конференцію. 5. Пробле¬ма, яка повинна розглядатися на конференції, дуже важлива. 6. Він любить вирішувати складні питання.
3. Choose the sentence with the split infinitive:
1. In order to master English you must work hard.
2. I shall be very glad to help you.
3. To solve this burning problem it is necessary for people to adequately process by-products of industry.
4. Make up questions to have the following answers:
l. Ecology is a problem common for all mankind.
2. Flora and fauna are victims of pollution.
3. You can find surface pollution everywhere.
4. Prehistoric man withdrew from the atmosphere only the oxygen he required for respiration.
5. People should take measures.
6. Much dangerous waste goes into the air.
7. Oil pollution caused great damage to beaches and wildlife.
8. The Earth provides people with mineral resources, rivers and forests.
9. Some educational institutions are training ecologists.
10. Lectures on nature conservation are included in the curriculum at colleges and universities.
SECTION III
Listening Comprehension.
1. Listen to the tape-recorded text below and be ready to choose the best answer for the following questions:
1. Has Western Europe the same environmental problems?
2. What stopped the flow of industrial waste into the Thames?
3. How was the Thames being described by 1949?
4. What do you know about the dreadful London smogs?
5. What is the most common form of air pollution?
6. Why is the bicycle considered to be the best way to travel?
TEXT B
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF THE WESTERN NATIONS
Western Europe has the same basic environmental problems, but they take different forms in each country. Already if you catch a fish in the Seine near Paris it may be blind and without scales, a victim of pollution. Tbe Mediterranean is actually dying from pollution.
It is fair to say that a considerable effort has been made in Britain with regard to the Thames. By 1949 it was being described as a stinking black mess (смердюче чорне месиво) with no fish and almost no oxygen. It was an outcry and something had to the done. Legislation stopped the flow of industrial waste into the river, and nearly all the sewage is treated before it gets to the water. Fish have come back and one salmon has been caught. One of Britain's environmental successes has been the control of air pollution especially in London. Thirty years ago hundreds of people died every year from the dreadful London smogs. Since then London and many other cities have become smokeless zones, areas where no coal fires are allowed. But now the increase in traffic is threatening serious air pollution problems in cities once again.
The most common form of air pollution comes from cigarette smoke which pollutes many public places like cinemas, pubs and restaurants.
Traffic and aircraft can cause serious noise pollution. Friends of the Earth suggest that the bicycle is the best way to travel because it's cheap, quiet and a good form of exercise.
2. Render the text either in English or in Ukrainian.
3. Do you know that:
1. During the Princely and Hetman periods in Ukraine, efforts to conserve forests and wildlife were, at best, sporadic. In l883 the first natural reserve Askania-Nova was established in the Kherson steppes. The first environmental protection society in Ukraine (and the Russian Empire) was organized in 1910 at the initiative of
P.Buzuk. More nature reserves were established in the 1920s than in any other decade. The largest nature reserves (zapovidnyky) are the Black Sea, Polissia, Yalta, Carpathian and Askania-Nova. They maintain the biological community in a more or less unmodified form. Ukraine has 123 national parks, among them botanical gardens, dendrological parks such as Sofiivka, memorial parks and wooden parks.
2. June 5-th is World Environment Day according to a dicision of the 27th Session of the United Nations General Assembly.
What measures have been taken in our country to protect environment?
– to control the use of water resources;
– to save plants, animals, birds;
– to protect the country's land resources;
– to protect rare and vanishing animal species;
– tree planting;
– building new factories far from worker' s homes.
4. Role Plays:
Student A.
You are a member of "Green Peace". Tell your friend what you stand for.
Student B.
Your friend is a member of "Green Peace". Ask him what he stands for.
5. Оrganize oral discussions on nature-protection problems.
6. Make a speech on nature protection:
What should people do to protect nature?

LESSON TWO
GRAMMAR
Багатокомпонентні означення
Означення завжди знаходиться безпосередньо біля означувального слова, передує йому, або іде слідом за ним. Означенням може бути: а) прикметник, б) дієприкметник, в) присвійний займенник, г) інфінітив, д) герундій, e) група слів (фразове означення), є) означальне підрядне речення.
Типовим для англійської науково-технічної літератури є використання препозитивних імених багатокомпонентних означень, які викликають особливі труднощі при перекладі. При цьому маються на увазі не випадки паралельного зв’язку декількох означень з одним і тим самим означувальним словом (наприклад new, up-to-date, specialized machines, prefabricated reinforced concrete elements), коли переклад має компонентний характер, а такі багатокомпонентні атрибутивні групи, в яких, крім зв’язків з певними іменниками між окремими означеннями, існують свої власні зв’язки. При уточненні значення під час перекладу багатокомпонентної атрибутивної групи доцільно дотримуватись наступної послідовності:
1) перекласти опорне слово групи, тобто означувальний іменник, який стоїть в кінці групи;
2) проаналізувати смислові зв’язки між членами словосполучення і встановити, які смислові групи виявляються усередині його. При чому такий аналіз слід проводити зліва направо, тобто з першого члена словосполучення;
3) розкрити зв’язок між окремими смисловими групами і перекласти всі словосполучення, починаючи з опорного слова-іменника і послідовно перекладати кожну смислову групу справа наліво.
Прослідкуємо порядок такої роботи на окремому прикладі. Припустимо, що нам зустрілось у тексті таке атрибутивне словосполучення thermoelectric generator design problem.
Опорним словом цього словосполучення є слово problem. Наступний етап роботи – це виявлення смислових груп словосполучення:
1) thermoelectric generator – термоелектричний генератор;
2) design – конструювання.
Тепер перекладаємо все словосполучення thermoelectric generator design problem – проблема конструювання термоелектричного генератора.
Виходячи із контексту, встановлюємо зв’язки між означеннями, наприк¬лад: agricultural production intensification – інтенсифікація сільськогоспо¬дарського виробництва.
Типовим явищем для англійської науково-технічної літератури є часте вживання багаточленних означень типу “N + N + N” – “іменник + іменник + + іменник”, де іменники без зміни своєї форми вживаються у функції означення. Переклад слід починати так само справа наліво з останнього іменника, а іменники, які стоять перед ним у ролі означення, слід перекладати:
1) іменниками в одному з непрямих відмінків (частіше родовому);
2) або прийменниковими зворотами. Наприклад: land reclamation work – робота по меліорації земель; river flow regulation – регулювання річкового стоку; water management enterprises – підприємства водного господарства.
Інколи такі словосполучення перекладаються розширеним виразом у відповідності з терміном, що існує в українській мові:
battery failure – припинення роботи батареї.
Перший компонент таких сполучень може в свою чергу мати означення, яке виражається прикметником:
high voltage source – джерело високої напруги.
Такі сполучення можуть складатися не тільки з двох, але й з трьох і більше іменників, утворюючи своєрідні “ланцюжки іменників”. Такі ланцюжки дуже характерні для мови науково-технічної літератури. В такому ланцюжку означуваним є останній іменник.
Наприклад:
glass vacuum tube – електронна трубка (лампа),
majority carrier amplifier – підсилювач на основних носіях ,
collector saturation voltage – напруга насиченого колектора.
SECTION I
Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension.
1. Read the following international words and give their Ukrainian equivalents:
catastrophe, tragic, radionuclides, desactivation, financial, to minimize, minimization, rehabilitation, radiation, monitoring, certification, radioecology, status, cooperation, iodine, calcium, strontium, plutonium.
2. Memorize the following words and expressions necessary to comprehend the text:
bitter – гіркий, сумний
event – подія
horrible accident – страшна аварія
to occur – траплятися, статися
nuclear power station – атомна електростанція
power unit – енергоблок
hazardous contamination – небезпечне забруднення
elimination of consequences – ліквідація наслідків
corresponding medical treatment – відповідне медичне лікування
ejections – викиди
to exceed – перевищувати
the zone of estrangement – зона відчуження
threat – загроза
water-meadow – затоплений луг
estimates – оцінки
to spread – розповсюджувати
prevention – попередження, запобігання
anti-flood dam – протиповінева дамба, гребля
to resettle – переселяти
to extract – вилучати
hard covering – тверде покриття
irradiation – опромінювання
to extinguish – гасити
foodstuffs – продукти харчування
iodine – йод
to require – вимагати, потребувати
to spend – витрачати
victim – жертва
negative influence – негативний вплив
coordinated efforts – зкоординовані зусилля
the executive power – виконавча влада
necessity – необхідність
long-term National program – довгострокова національна програма
objective – мета
reduction – зменшення
deterioration – погіршення
to suffer – постраждати
compulsory resettling – обов’язкове відселення
to avoid – уникати
quality – якість
monitoring – перевірка, контроль, управління,
моніторинг
the world community – світова спільнота
to attract attention – привернути увагу
knot – вузол
wastes – відходи, сміття
malignant tumors – злоякісні пухлини
thyroid gland cancer – рак щитовидної залози
3. Read the text and carry out the following assignments:
a) find the paragraph describing long ejections of radioactive elements;
b) find the sentence telling about the size of radioactive contamination.
c) choose the best Ukrainian title expressing the main idea of the text:
TEXT A
CHORNOBYL ACCIDENT, ITS CONSEQUENCES AND LESSONS
The 26th of April is a bitter event for the people living in Ukraine and regions situated far from it. On that day in 1986 a horrible accident occured at the Ghornobyl nuclear power station. There was the explosion of reactor of the fourth power unit. This explosion resulted in hazardous nuclear contamination of air, soil, water. Thanks to urgent and brave actions of firemen, the fire was stopped.
A number of foreign countries offered specialized medical equiment and drugs for biological elimination of isotopes of different chemical elements from human body. Later on thousands of children were taken abroad for corresponding medical treatment.
Such accidents like that in Chornobyl, must never be repeated again, because the very existence of millions of people may be under a threat. This accident will never be forgotten.
From the distance we passed we look back at the tragic explosion of the reactor and long ejections of radioactive iodine, caesium, strontium, plutonium and other isotopes, ejections which in their sum are equal, as scientists consider, to at least five hundred Hiroshima bombs... About 300 mln curies of radionuclides which covered only in Ukraine of almost 95% of its territory were ejected in our sky.
50,5 thou.sq.km are related to the zones of radioactive contamination.
Somebody may ask: Is this territory so large? This territory considerably exceeds in its size a medium uropian state-Switzerland – and it is twice as large as Belgium. This territory goes through 12 regions of Ukraine occupying 2218 inhabited localities, where 2,4 mln. people live including 600 thousand children.
Over 90 thou. persons from 76 villages were evacuated within the first two months from the 30-kilometer zone. Now this zone is called as the Zone of estrangement, and now just in this zone are concentrated the most complicated scientific-engineering problems.
Of real potential threat for the population and environement in the watermeadow of the Prypyat-river, where, in accordance with our estimates, there are over l4 thousand curies of radio-activity of strontium-90, and the threat lies in the fact that in case of high flood or strong rains the radionuclides may be flooded down into the Dniper-river, whose waters are used by 32 mln. people of Ukraine. Therefore, main efforts here are directed at prevention of radionuclides spreading beyond the borders of the Zone of estrangement, prevention of their migration.
To make the life of population safer, desactivation and cleaning of the territories is being carried out, and an anti-flood damb was constructed...
Over 142 thousand people have been resettled from the contaminated territories or left these territories themselves. 123 hectares of agricultural lands and 157 hectares of forests have been extracted from usage. 570 artesian wells were made, hundreds of kilometers of water lines were laid, highways with hard covering were made. Maps of radiactive contamination have been compiled.
In order to implement the state policy of 1iquidation of consequences of the Chornobyl catastrophe and protection of people against their influence was establiahed the State Committee for protection of population against consequences of the Chornobyl catastrophe, which in May of 1991 was transformed into the Ministry for protection of population against consequences of the Chornobyl catastrophe.
If we start to analyse medical statistics, we shall see, that in the structure of diseases one of the first places is occupied by diseases of blood and blood circulation system, functional disorders of the cardio-vascular system and of the nervous system. Children often have diseases of organs of respiration, of digestion, inborn anomalies and malignant tumours, thyroid gland cancers.
The nearest consequences of this catastrophe became the irradiation of persons that took part in extinguishing fire and in emergency operations at the atomic power station. In accordance with the information material of 1986 238 persons became ill with the radiation sickness, and 29 of them died in the first months after the catastrophe, about 2000 persons had irradiation disorders.
Now, when years passed from the moment of that tragic event, the external ionizing irradiation is not of such large danger as before, but, first of all, of great importance becomes the so-called internal irradiation with the isotopes, brought into the body of man with contaminated foodstuffs.
Enormous material and financial resources were required in the first years and are required now to overcome consequences of the catastrophe and minimize them.
Ukraine spends annually for minimization of consequences of the Chornobyl catastrophe and for social protection of victims about 6 percent of its budget, i.e. the sum which exceeds 800 mln. US dollars.
The understanding of the fact that negative influence of Ghornobyl will be long and its minimization will require coordinated efforts of many ministries and departments, scientific institutions, bodies of the executive power in cities prompted the necessity of development of the 1ong-term National program of 1iquidation of consequence of the Chornobyl catastrophe and social protection of citizens-victims of the catastrophe.
If we speak about its main aspects and objectives, they are the following:
– reduction of risk of deterioration of the health of population that suffered from the Chornobyl catastrophe;
– rehabilitation of the territories contaminated with radionuclides in the zone of compulsory re-settling and return of them into general economic usage;
– fulfilment of protective measures on the Zone of estrangement in order to avoid the spread of radionuclides beyond its borders, stabilization of the "Cover" object;
– improvement of socio-economic conditions for the population living in contaminated territories.
With this purpose in view it is necessary to fulfil some measures promoting to improvement of medical service and health of population, quality of local product, creation of safe conditions for work in the forests.
In the field of radiation monitoring it is necessary to continue certification of towns and settlements, improvement of environment control and foodstuffs system.
Considerable volumes of works shall be fulfilled in the branch of radioactive waste treatment.
The Chornobyl nuclear catastrophe has no analogs in the world. Therefore, it is not strange that it attracted attention of the world community. Actually, in the first years after the catastrophe our Republic had rather weak contact with the world. And only after independence was proclaimed in Uk raine, direct contacts with various int ernational organizations and separate countries along the Chornobyl line became active. Thus, in 1995 about 50 international projects and programs connected with study and minimization of the catastrophe consequences were under way. Speaking about the international co-operation it is necessary to mention, first of all, the UN and such bodies of it as UNESCO and others. Fruitful is the co-operation with the European Commission, as well as with separate countries – with the USA, Japan, Germany, Sweden, Canada, Cuba – it is impossible to mention all the countries.
We want to believe that the world community will remember in the future about the problems which were caused by the Chornobyl catastrophe; it will develop cooperation concerning the study and minimization of action of radioactive contamination.
In this aspect very important for us will be such directions as protection of the population health, rehabilitation of contaminated territories, esbablishment of a system of treatment of radioactive wastes, solving the problem of the "Cover" object. The whole knot of ecological problems being of interest for specialists is concentrated in the Zone of estrangement; these problems should be solved. This is the purpose of the Chornobyl centre for problems of nuclear safety, radioactive wastes and radioecology with the status of the international centre which was established in accordance with the Decree of the President of Ukraine L.Kuchma of the 26th of April, l996.
There are many points for close cooperation, the result of which will serve for the whole mankind.
4. Answer the following questions on the text:
1. What happened on the 26th of April, 1996?
2. What did the explosion result in?
3. Did foreign countries offer specialized medical equipment?
4. Who was taken abroad for corresponding medical treatment?
5. What are 1ong radioactive ejections equal to?
6. How many radionuclides were ejected in our sky?
7. How many persons were evacuated within the first two months from the 30-kilometer zone?
8. What do they call this zone?
9. What do you know about the water-meadow of the Prypyat river?
10. What are the main efforts directed at?
11. How many people have been resettled from the contaminated territories?
12. When was Minchornobyl established?
13. What were the nearest consequences of this catastrophe?
14. What do we need to minimize the consequences?
15. What sum does Ukraine spend annually?
16. Can you name the main aspects and objectives of the long-term national program of liquidation of conseguences of the Chornobyl catastrophe?
17. What do you know about international co-operation in this field?
18. What is the purpose of the Chornobyl centre?
19. Are there any important directions in this aspect?
20. Can you enumerate them?
5. Choose the word which fits best each blank:
1. Now this zone is called the zone of ... (tragedy, research, estrangement). 2. If we speak about its main aspects and ... (purposes, aims, objectives), they are the following. 3. In the field of radiation ... (control, investigation, monitoring) it is necessary to continue certification of towns and settlements. 4. There are many points for close ... (work, venture, cooperation), the results of which will serve for the whole mankind.
6. Write out of the text terminological words and word combinations referring to pollution and care of the environment.
7. Suggest subtitles for each paragraph of the text.
8. Express the main idea of the text in Ukrainian in the shortest possible way and write down your annotation.
9. Make a summary of the text in Ukrainian.
10. Render the text according to the following denotative graph:
Table 1.
Chornobyl accident, its consequences and lessons

The 26th of April 1986 is T The nearest consequences Medical
а bitter event, a horrible accident statistics and the

Minchornobyl the National structure
Nuclear contamination of Program of
air, soil, water
diseases

The main aspects and objectives
The zones of radioactive

contamination The purpose of the international

Chornobyl centre
The water-meadow of the

Prypyat river The problems of nuclear safety,

radioactive wastes and
The problem of the “cover" radioecology
object

International cooperation
11. Discuss the problems raised in the text and make up the situative dialogues.

 

SECTION II
Structure and Written Expression.
1. Write out the text the sentences with attributive word-combinations, explain them and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
2. Insert prepositions where necessary and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
Each year the world economy ejects ... the atmosphere ... 200 million tons ... carbon monoxide, more than 120 million tons ... ash and nearly 150 million tons ... sulphur dioxide. They fall back ... the Earth in the form ... "acid rains".
3. Translate into English.
Системи безпеки на реакторах АЕС ще далекі від досконалості (perfection). Ядерний реактор – джерело не лише електроенергії, а й радіоактивного бруду. Один з побічних продуктів, що утворюються в реакторах атомних електростанцій – йод-131. Він негативо впливає на діяльність щитовидної залози.
4. Сhange the following attributive word-combinations according to the model and translate them:
1. heat radiation – radiation of heat – теплове випромінювання
safety level, reliability level, radiation monitoring, catastrophe consequences,
estrangement zone.
2. automated production systems – systems of automated production – системи автоматизованого виробництва
nuclear fuel control, programmable control device, environment control systems, radioactive contamination minimization, сontaminated territories rehabilitation, nuclear power produсtion.
5. Make up questions to have the following answers:
1. Ecodevelopment is a complex of problems – economic, social, political, philosophical, moral and ethical.
2. The short history of nuclear power production registered more than 150 accidents all over the world, with radioactive leak following.
3. The most disastrous accident occured at the Chornobyl APS on April 26, 1986.
4. Specialists from abroad as well as individual persons came to help.
5. The crown of this life is Homo sapiens – man thinking.
6. It is only international cooperation in environmental protection that will help us to save our planet from ecological devastation.
7. So humanism is today what we need most of all in politics, in relations among people and in our attitude to nature.
8. Space flights of earthmen have proved that we all belong to one family, mankind, living on a tiny island in the infinite Universe.
SECTION III
Listening Comprehension.
1. Listen to the tape-recorded text below and be ready to choose the best answer for the following questions:
1. What are the main areas to be examined in relating energy to peoples lives?
2. Will there be enough fuel for the future?
3. How long will coal, gas and oil resources last?
4. Why do many people have concerns about reliance (довіра) on nuclear power?
5. What does nuclear fusion offer?
6. What are the chances of solar, wave and wind power?
TEXT B
ENERGY AND OUR LIVES
Two of the main areas to be examined in relating energy to peoples lives are: the "energy crisis", and pollution and care of the environment.
Will there be enough fuel for the future? World energy demand has been growing steadily for the past 50 years and this trend shows no sign of being reversed.
It is hard to say what the demand for energy will be by the early 2,000's, but reserve figures for the fossil fuel of coal, gas and oil must be a cause for concern.
While coal will last 226 years at present rates of use, gas will last only 58.7 years and oil 52.5 years.
The limited life of fossil fuel is one of the reasons for growing interest in other fuel sources.
The only non-fossil fuels which seem to give the immediate prospect of a major contribution to world energy are uranium and plutonium in the nuclear industry and water in hydro-electric schemes. Hydro electricity suffers from a reliance on the right geographic conditions being available. Following accidents at Chornobyl and Three Mile Island, many people have concerns about increasing reliance on nuclear power.
Nuclear fusion offers exciting possibilities for the future if the enormous technological problems can be overcome.
Though solar, wave and wind power might make a contribution to energy needs in certain parts of the world, the chances of them making a significant world wide impact seem unlikely.
2. Render the text either in English or in Ukrainian.
3. Do you know that:
1. In September 1986 a special meeting of IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) General Conference in Viena discussed the safety measures to provide for a safer operation of APS's all over the world. The document at the Viena meeting was signed by heads of the delegations from 46 states to provide a broad international cooperation of different countries in the sphere of nuclear power production. It is only the safety of APS's operation that can guarantee a further development of nuclear power production.
2. Radioactive materials give off three types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma. Though all materials must be treated with care, it is the gamma sources which are the most dangerous.
Fortunately, the amount of waste from the nuclear industry is relatively small. The same amount of energy would lead to one tonne of nuclear waste or 100,000 tonnes of coal ash. The problem is that the radiation from nuclear material can be harmful and its effects can last for hundreds of years. For this reason, care needs to be taken in the production and transportation of fuel and the disposal of nuclear waste.
4. Make a report "Nuclear energy and the environment" and discuss this problem using the material of the lesson and other information sources.

LESSON THREE
GRAMMAR
Предикативні інфінітивні звороти
В англійській науково-технічній літературі часто зустрічаються інфіні-тив¬ні звороти трьох типів, а саме:
1) суб'єктний інфінітивний зворот (Complex Subject);
2) об'єктний інфінітивний зворот (Complex Object);
3) інфінітивний зворот з прийменником for.
Суб'єктний інфінітивний комплекс
Complex subject
S + is said + to v
S + seem + to v
Суб'єктний інфінітивний комплекс (складений підмет) складається з двох частин. Перша частина комплексу – іменник у загальному відмінку або особовий займенник у називному відмінку. Друга частина комплексу – інфінітив, що виражає дію, яку виконує або якої зазнає особа або предмет, позначений іменником або займенником.
Особливістю суб'єктного інфінітивного комплексу є те, що перша і друга частини його відокремлені одна від одної присудком речення, яким може бути: 1) дієслово у пасивному стані, 2) дієслово в активному стані,
3) словосполучення.
1. All the irrigation processes are said to be mechanized.
Говорять, що всі процеси зрошення механізовані.
2. This problem seems to be very complicated.
Ця задача, здається, дуже складна.
3. The yield is sure to be high.
Врожай, напевно, буде хорошим.
Переклад суб'єктного інфінітивного комплексу на українську мову.
Речення з суб'єктним інфінітивним комплексом на українську мову перекладається здебільшого складнопідрядними реченнями. Переклад слід починати з присудка, який в українській мові перетворюється на неозначено-особове або безособове головне речення. Перша частина комплексу (іменник або займенник) стає підметом підрядного додаткового речення, а інфінітив перекладається як присудок підрядного речення.
Дієслова з якими вживається Complex Subject
1 2 3
Дієслова в пасивному cтані Дієслова в активному стані Словосполучення
to think – думати to seem – здаватися to be sure – обов'язково
to know – знати to appear to be certain – напевно
to consider – вважати to happen – траплятися to be likely – очевидно
to believe – вірити to chance
to suppose – припускати to turn out – виявлятися
to expect – сподіватись to prove
to say – казати
to report – повідомлювати
to order – наказувати
Об’єктний інфінітивний комплекс
S + P + Noun/Pronoun + Infinitive
Об’єктний інфінітивний комплекс має в своєму складі інфінітив і вживається в функції додатка (object).
Об’єктний інфінітивний комплекс складається з двох частин. Перша – іменник у загальному відмінку або особовий займенник в об'єктному відмінку. Друга частина комплексу – інфінітив, що виражає дію, яку виконує або зазнає особа або предмет, позначений іменником або займенником, що стоїть перед інфінітивом.
I like her sing.
Мені подобається, як вона співає.
Переклад. На українську мову об’єктний інфінітивний комплекс перекладається здебільшого підрядним додатковим реченням. Перша частина речення – іменник чи займенник – відповідає підмету підрядного речення, а друга частина – інфінітив – присудку.
e.g. We know irrigation to be an important factor in the development of agriculture.
Ми знаємо, що зрошення є важливим фактором розвитку сільського господарства.
We want them to finish their work in time.
Ми хочемо, щоб вони закінчили роботу вчасно.
Об'єктний інфінітивний комплекс вживається не після будь-якого дієслова, а лише після певних груп дієслів.
Дієслова, після яких вживається об'єктний інфінітивний комплекс:
Дієслова, що
виражають сприймання за допомогою органів чуттів Дієслова, що виражають бажання, намір, почуття Дієслова, що виражають припущення, впевненість, сподівання Дієслова, що виражають наказ, прохання, дозвіл
to see – бачити to want – хотіти to consider, to believe – вважати to order –наказувати
to hear – чути to wish – бажати to expect –сподіватись to ask – просити
to feel – почувати to desire to find – знаходити to request, (to make, to cause, to force) – примушувати
to watch спостерігати to intend – мати намір to know – знати to recommend –радити
to observe to suppose –припускати to advise – веліти
to notice – помічати to think – гадати, вважати
to let – дозволяти
Примітка: Інфінітив вживається без частки " to ":
– після дієслів, що виражають сприймання за допомогою органів чуттів;
– після дієслів " to make ", " to let ".
Прийменниковий інфінітивний комплекс
For + Noun / Pronoun + Infinitive
Прийменниковий інфінітивний комплекс (for- phrase) – сполучення прийменника "for" з
а) іменником в загальному відмінку або особовим займенником в об'єктному відмінку;
б) інфінітивом.
Цей комплекс може входити до складу будь-якого члену речення: він перекладається на українську мову інфінітивом або підрядним реченням. Підрядне речення здебільшого починається сполучником, іменник або займенник перекладається як підмет підрядного речення, а інфінітив – як присудок. Прийменник "for" при цьому не перекладається.
Наприклад:
1. He opened the door for us to enter.
Він відчинив двері, щоб ми зайшли.
2. They waited for me to check the results.
Вони чекали, щоб я перевірила результати.
3. For water levels to be regulated automatic electricaly and hydraulically operated regulators are used.
Для регулювання рівнів води використовуються автоматичні регулятори електричної та гідравлічної дії.
4. This is for you to think on. (предикатив)
Про це тобі треба подумати.

 

SECTION I
Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension.
1. Read the following international words and give their Ukrainian equivalents:
material, risk, transportation, natural resouces, genetic, ethical, aesthetic, shocking, mechanism, rational, budget, component, legal, strategy.
2. Memorize the following words and expressions necessary to comprehend the text:
relationship – відношення, взаємозв'язок
objective prerequisite – об'єктивна передумова
inefficient – неефективний
to pander – потурати, зводити
unreasonable – нерозсудливий, нерозумний
consumption – використання
to ignore – ігнорувати, не брати до уваги
exclusively – виключно
a quantitative constituent – кількісний показник
incentives – стимули
sustainable – стабільний
to retard – сповільнювати, затримувати
impact – вплив
to exceed – перевищувати
average – середній
arable land – орна земля
require – вимагати, потребувати
to cause – викликати
authentic – справжній, дійсний
to conceal – приховувати
extinction – вимирання
to decrease – зменшуватись
statehood – положення, ранг, державність
a disclosure – викриття
payment – плата
recreational – рекреаційний
to extract – видобувати
to overcome – перемогти, подолати
endangered regions – небезпечні регіони
first-term measures – першочергові міри
draft plan – проектний план
to prohibit – забороняти
approximately – приблизно
to provide – забезпечувати
priority – перевага, пріоритет
paramount – верховний, першорядний
diversity – різноманітність, несхожість
eventual – остаточний, можливий
relevant – доречний, відповідний
to promote – підвищувати, сприяти, допомагати
virtue – доброчесність, чеснота
to enhance – збільшувати, посилювати
managerial – управлінський, керівний
awareness – обізнаність
abnormal – ненормальний
to preclude – усувати, запобігати
burden – тягар, ноша
aggravating factor – погіршуючий, обтяжливий фактор
warning – попередження
ensure – гарантувати, забезпечувати
surveillance – нагляд
illicit – незаконний, заборонений
to be underway – розглядатися, працювати
to upgrade – підняти на більш кваліфікований рівень
implementation – запровадження, виконання
waste disposal facilities – засоби обслуговування і розташування
відходів
to comply – погоджувати, виконувати
accession – доступ
in the framework of – у межах
to resolve – вирішувати, відкидати (сумнів)
to foster – доглядати, сприяти
mitigation – пом'якшення, послаблення
non-detachable – невід'ємний
3. Read the text and carry out the following assignments:
a) find the paragraph describing shocking structural disproportions in the Ukrainian economy;
b) find the sentences telling about national programme of environmental rehabilitation of the Dnipro basin;
c) choose the best Ukrainian titles expressing the main idea of every paragraph of the following text:
TEXT A
ENVIRONMENTAL POLlCY OF UKRAINE: PROBLEMS, AСHIVENMENTS AND PROSPECTS
1. Natural resources are a key element to each country's national wealth both in terms of ecological and genetic, sociological, economic, medical, ethical, aesthetic, cultural relationship. The efficient use of natural resources and protection of the environment are an objective prerequisite for developing a national economy.
2. During a significant period of time the Ukrainian economy used to form in an expressly centralised manner with a number of shocking structural disproportions. The former inefficient economic system has pandered to the non-rational use of resources and unreasonable consumption of energy, has ignored the value of natural resources, stressed exclusively a quantitative constituent of manufacturing process, provided no true incentives for sustainable use and protection of the environment and natural resources. The consequences have not retarded: the industrial impact on the Ukrainian territory exeeds 6-7 times the average European level, the percentage of arable land is 8% out of all territory being in agricultural use and 57% as opposed to the overall Ukrainian dry land water is consumed at many enterprises 2-5, and sometimes even 10-13 times more than up-to-date techniques would require.
3. Environmental consequences to the Ukrainian economy caused by such a policy are proved to be tragic.
Additionally within the former system the authentic environmental informations used to be concealed, the general public's rights for living in safe environmental conditions were ignored
1991 marked off the beginning of the Ukrainian nation's extinction – that year the size of the Ukrainian population decreased by 39,200 persons in 1992 – by 100,300, in 1993 – by l84,200, in 1994 – by 243,100, in 1995 – by 299,800 persons.
4. The Ukraine's independent statehood, development of an open democratic society and market-oriented economy have allowed a disclosure of all the depth of the environmental crisis and provided a unique chance to choose a normal civilised way of developing our state.
5. Quite an important part to the ecological and economic mechanism became payments for natural resources use. For the first time in Ukraine payments for the use of land, recreational, forest resources, of fresh water, of the animal kingdom, for the special use of depths while extracting minerals have been put into effect; a number of other documents regarding the introduction of other resource pyments is being prepared.
6. For significant environmental problems to be overcome, a number of ecological programmes for the most endangered regions-Donetsk-Prydniprovsky, Azov-Black Sea, Polyssya – have been developing and implementing in Ukraine since 1993.
7. First-term measures are included into draft plans for social and economic regions' development. Over the all territory of Polyssya the reclaiming of marshes, drainage of forests and lands located at river sources are known to be prohibited.
8. We know the environmental status of the Dnipro river, containing approximately 80% of all water resources of Ukraine and providing water to 32 millions of Ukrainians and to the two third of the Ukrainian commerсial activities, to be one of the deepest conсerns among tasks of social and economic development and environmental policies of our country. Environmental rehabilitation of the Dnipro basin is regarded as one of the most important national priorities.
9. A National Programme for environmental rehabilitation of the Dnipro basin and improving the quality of drinking water has been drawn up.
10. Another constituent part of paramount importance to an environmental policy is preservation of biological and landscape diversity being a key element that provides for an eventual possibility for any successful nature use. In this field the relevant activity focuses on the following 3 directions:
– to promote strongly the development of natural reserves in accordance with so called "multifunctional principles" of nature use;
– to work out a national strategy for conservation of biological and landscape diversity by virtue of reasonably balanced and saving use and through the implementation of the said strategy by branch ministries and agencies;
– to enhance the role and possibility of the general public in taking managerial decisions, in putting in place a system for environmental education and awareness.
11. The strategy for establishing a State System for regulation of environmental security consists is putting in place such a system that would enable not only responses to abnormal events, but also efficient preventive measures and monitoring with a view to preclude eventual pollutions of the environment.
12. A separate burden on the Ukrainian environment is known to be industrial complexes employing out-of-date techniques. Another aggravating factor is tremendous amount of industrial and toxic wastes that have been accumulating for a dozen of years.
13. A Centre for environmental monitoring and nuclear safety is about to become operational, systems for radiation monitoring and early warning, that ensure surveillance over 30-kilometre zone around the Zaporizhye and Rivne nuclear power plants.
14. 1,450–1,950 millions of cubic tons of wastes are generated annually in Ukraine. Their overall volume amounts to 25,000 of tons of cubic meters, the areas holding this amount of wastes equal 160,000 hectares. Over l00 millions of tons of toxic wastes are generated in Ukraine annually.
15. According to decisions taken by the Parliament of Ukraine to date since Apri11, 1994 – import and transit of wastes through the territory of Ukraine are subject to control. For this period of time none case of illicit waste importation has been registered. The development of an analytical-information system regulating waste related issues is underway.
16. Following the presidential decree of December 15, 1994 a Ministry for Environmental Protection and Nuclear Safety was established in order to upgrade protection of the emvironment, use of atomic energy, of radiation techniques, and substance.
The implementation of the State system for atomic energy use regulation is regulated by the Laws of Ukraine "On atomic energy utilisation and radiation safety" and "On radioactive waste management". The Parliament of Ukraine has been submitted a draft Law "On radiological security of the general public".
17. Presently, 15 nuclear facilities at the Ukrainian nuclear power plants (total capacity 13,880 millions of kilowatts) are in operation. In accordance with the adopted Law "On atomic energy utilisation and radiation safety" the Ukrainian utilities have to be issued permanent operating licenses on the basis of safety cases for operating power units. A number of regulations regarding the content of safety analysis reports were drawn up in the year of 1995.
18. There are 6 Ukrainian principal radioactive waste disposal facilities that are operated on the basis of a number of specialised State installations ca1led "Radon".
19. Quite an important task remains management of the radioactive waste resulted by the Chornobyl disaster. A bigger part of the wastes is disposed in temporary "storages" that do not comply with the requirements of the relevant regulations in force.
20. Presently Ukraine is a Party to 13 environmental conventions of global and regional significance and protocols to them. Another 11 international conventions whose accession is regarded as a top priority are being prepared to signing or ratification. The Ministry for Environmental Protection and Nuclear Safety of Ukraine co-operates with other countries in the framework of 37 international agreements and arrangements.
21. Over 20 international short- and 1ong-term environmental programmes and projects for approximately 14 million of US dollars are either under development or underway.
22. There are no domestic environmental problems. Resolving these of the Polyssya region Ukraine fosters the regeneration of the European green lungs. Sanitising the water bodies in the Azov-Black Sea basin, undertaking strong efforts aimed at the environmental rehabilitation of the Dnipro-river and its basin, we contribute to the mitigation of both regional and global problems. Ecologically safe and sound, economically stable and democratic Ukraine is not only a dream of our nation but also a non-detachable future part of Europe and world community.
4. Answer the following questions on the text:
1. What is a key element to each country's national wealth?
2. Has the former inefficient economic system pandered to the nonrational use of resourses?
3. What do you know about consequences of it?
4. 1991 marked off the beginning of the Ukrainian nation's extinction, didn't it?
5. Have payments for the use of national resouces been put into effect?
6.What ecological programmes have been developing and implementing in Ukraine since 1993 ?
7. Is the environmental status of the Dnipro-river one of the deepest concern among tasks of environmental policy?
8. What are the following 3 directions in the field of environmental po1icy?
9. How can you describe the strategy for establishing a state system for regulation of environmental security?
10. How many tons of wastes are generated annually in Ukraine?
11. When was a Ministry for Environmental Protection and Nuclear Safety established?
l2. What laws concerning the Atomic energy were adopted?
13. Is Ukraine a Party to 13 environmental conventions?
14. Can environmental problems be only domestic?
15. What do we dream of?
5. Fill in the blanks using the words and phrases from the bottom:
There are no ... environmental ... . We contribute to the ... of both regional and global problems. There аге 6 Ukrainian principal radio- ... disposal ... . Economically stable and dеmосrаtic Ukraine is not only а dream of our nation but also а ... future part of Europe аnd all world ... .
(community, problems, waste, domestic, mitigation, nоn-detachable, facilities, active).
6. Tranalate into English using active vocabularу of the text.
1. Вiдповідно до наказу президента від 15 грудня I994p. було створено Міністерство охорони навколишнього середовища та ядерної безпеки.
2. Сьогодні на українських атомних станціях є діючими 15 блоків. 3. Досить важливою частиною екологічного та економічного механізму стала платня за використння природних ресурсів. 4. Перше місце в Україні за сукупністю факторів, що призводять до деградації природнього середовища, обіймає Придніпровсько-Донецький регіон. 5. Окремим тягарем для навколишнього середовища України є промислові комплекси, які використовують застаріле обладнання. 6. Щорічно на Україні виробляється більш ніж 100 млн. тон токсичних відходів.
7. Suggest subtitles for each paragraph of the text.
8. Make uр а plan tо the text.
9. Маkе up adequate translation of the following texts and paragraphs 1, 3, 5, 7 of text A.
POLLUTION АND САRЕ ОF ТНЕ ENVIRONMENT
Pollutiоn is the damaging оf 1and, аir, rivers, 1akes and seas bу harmful materials as а result оf human activitу. Тhe materials which cause this damage аrе called pollutants .
In recent уеаrs people have become increasingly concerned about pollution. These people often form pressure grоuрs tо campaign against damage to the еnvironment.
THE RISK ОF РОLLUTION
The risk of pollution сan оccur аt many points in the production, transportation and use of fuels.
Mining the fossil fuels results in large amounts of waste materials which need tо be disposed of.
Burning fuels like coal and oil produces "acid rain" аs the sulphur dioxide given off mingles with water vapour in the atmosphere.
Oil pollution can be caused by damage to oil tankers аnd drilling rigs at sea.
10. Express the main idea of the tеxt in Ukrainian in the shortest рossible way and write down your annotation.
11. Make up a denotative graph (present the text graphically) and render the text according to it.
12. Retell the text in the form of a dialogue, using exercise 4.
13. Discuss the problems raised in the text
environmental policy of Ukraine:
a) problems;
b) achievements;
c) prospects.
SECTION II
Structure and Written Expression
1. Write out of the text the sentences containing constructions with the infinitive and translate them into Ukrainian.
2. Translate into English using the correct construction with the Infinitive:
1. Ми сподіваємось, що переговори з охорони навколишнього середовища будуть успішними. 2. Кажуть, що він вчився у нашій Академії на факультеті екології та землевпорядкування. 3. Ми знаємо, що цей вчений розробив новий метод аналізу. 4. Ми хочемо, щоб вас поінформували про цю екологічну експедицію. 5. Припускають, що атомні станції екологічно чистіші, ніж традиційні теплові. 6. Ми сьогодні знаємо, що природа слабка і беззахисна перед людиною.
3. Make up questions to have the following answers:
1. Man and nature should interact and cooperate in order to build a sensible ecological economic system. 2. It is only international cooperation in environmental protection that will help us to save our planet from ecological devastation. 3. The achivements of the scientific and technological progress must be used for the solution of ecological problems. 4. Shortcomings (mistakes) in nature preservation are often due to (чеpез) lack of ecological education of people and specialists. 5. Our planet, the Earth, is a unique phenomenon in the Universe. 6. It is known to be the only planet where life exists. 7. The crown of this life is Homo Sapiens – Man thinking. 8. Environmental protection is a task, requiring the joint efforts (зусиль) of governments, public organization and individual members of soсiety. 9. One of the major problems facing mankind today is the problem of war and peace, and the other is the problem of the relationship between man and nature (ecology).
SEСTION III
Listening Comprehension
1. Listen to the tape-recorded text below and be ready to choose the best answer for the following questions:
1. What is the slogan of the European Union?
2. What did the early directives focus on?
3. What should people realise?
4. Can you set out three main objectives?
5. What had the governments already understood?
TEXT B
WHY A EUROPEAN UNION ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?
"The environment knows no frontiers" was the slogan of the 1970s, when the European Community – better known nowadays as the European Union – began to develop its first environmental 1egislation. It is even more true today.
The early directives focused on the testing and labelling of dangerous chemicals, drinking-water and surface-water protection, and controlling air pollutants such as S02, NOx and particulates from power plants and motor vehicles. Many of the directives from the 1970s and 1980s were linked to Europe's overriding commitment to improve the 1iving and working conditions of its citizens. People came increasingly to realise that quality of life could not be measured in income and material goods alone.
In 1987, the Single European Act gave this growing body of environmental legislation a formal legal basis, and set out three protection of the environment, human health and prudent and rational use of natural resources (Article 130r).
The new article in the Treaty only reflected what the governments had already understood: that countries are part of an interconnected and iterdependent world of people who are bound together by the air they breathe, the food they eat, the products they use, the wastes they throw away, the energy they consume, and the journeys they make for business and pleasure.
2. Render the text either in English or in Ukrainian.
3. Do you know that:
1. The European Union cooperates actively with other countries through the United Nations organisations such as the UN Environment Programme, the World Health Organisation, the Commission on Sustainable Development, and the UN Development Programme, and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. It also cooperates with other bodies to promote global, consensual solutions to global environmental problems such as climate change, ozone depletion, tropical forests and biodiversity.
2. At the inauguration of the new European Consultative Forum on the Environment and Sustainable Development, Mr. Santer said that one of the main objectives of the European Union must be "to hand over our planet to future generations in at least as good a condition as we have inherited it ourselves".
3. The I992 Maastricht Treaty formally established the concept of sustainable development in European Union law. Then, in I997, the Amsterdam Treaty made sustainable development one of the overriding objectives of the European Union. The new Treaty considerably strengthened the commitment to the principle that the European Union’s future development must be based on the principle of sustainable development and a high level of protection of the environment. The environment must be integrated into the definition and inplementation of all of the Union’s other economic and social policies, including trade, industry, energy, agriculture, transport and tourism.
4. Environmental pressures still growing: 25% increase in consumption by 2010, with a 20% increase in carbon emissions compared with 1990; 25% increase in car ownership and a 17% increase in mileage from 2000 compared with 1990; 63% increase in fertiliser use from 1970 to 1988; 35 % increase in solid urban waste from 1987 to 1992; 35% increase in average water use from I970 to 1985; 60% projected increase in Mediterranean tourism by 2000 compared with 1990.
4. Organize oral discussions on a European Union environmental problems.
LESSON FOUR
GRAMMAR
Словотвiр в текстах фс науки

Найпоширенішими способами словотвору в англомовній науково-технічній літературі є такі:
1. Афіксація (префiксацiя та суфiксацiя)
2. Конверсiя
3. Словоскладення
ОСНОВНI ПРЕФIКСИ ТА ЇХ ЗНАЧЕННЯ
Префікс Значення Приклади
un- заперечне, протилежне unable
dis- заперечне, протилежне значення disadvantage
im- (перед m, p) заперечне, протилежне значення impervious
in- заперечне, протилежне значення inadequate
ir- (перед r) заперечне, протилежне значення irregular
mis- заперечне, протилежне значення misuse
il (перед l) заперечне, протилежне значення illogical
* anti- заперечне, протилежне antisocial
* extra- зверх-, над- extraordinary
* counter- проти counterwork
over- пере-, надзвичайно overwater, overgrazing
* re- знову, повторно redistibution
* sub- під, нижче subirrigation
semi- напів- semiarid
* super- пере-, зверх- superheat
under- недо-, нижче норми underestimate
* inter між, взаємо- interaction
* non- не- noninterference
Зiрочкою (*) позначенi префiкси-iнтернацiоналiзми.
ОСНОВНI СУФIКСИ IМЕННИКІВ
V (verb) – дієслово, N (noun) – іменник, A (adjective) – прикметник, Num (numeral) – числівник, Adv (adverb) – прислівник.
Модель Значення Приклади
V+ -ment результат дії movement, attachment
V+ -ion (-tion)
(-ation), (-sion) процес, назва дії,
стан erosion, irrigation
reaction
V+ -er, -or особа/механізм, що виконує дію sprinkler, user, creator
V+ -ing процес, дія, стан melting, cutting
V+ -ance/-ence дія, стан conveyance, performance
V+ -al назва дії renewal, disposal
V+ -ure дія, результат pressure
V+ -y назва дії delivery
V+ -th результат дії growth
A+ -th стан width
A+ -ness якість, стан wetness
A+ -ure якість, стан moisture
A+ -y якість, стан efficiency
A+ -ity якість, стан aridity
N+ -ist особа, що займається biologist
N+ -ian чи має відношення до ... mathematician
N+ hood абстрактне поняття boyhood, brotherhood
ОСНОВНI СУФIКСИ ПРИКМЕТНИКIВ
Модель Значення Приклади
A+ -al якість automatical, economical
N+ -al наявність якості experimental
N+ -ful наявність якості fruitful, powerful
N+ -y наявність якості sandy
V+ -able/ible спроможність щось зробити favourable, arable
V+ -ant/ent наявність якості resistant, different
N/V/Num.+ -ary наявність якості primary, secondary
N+ -ous наявність якості impervious
N+ -less відсутність якості waterless
N+ -ic наявність якості symbolic, characteristic
N+ -ly такий, що має якості основи friendly, monthly
ОСНОВНI СУФIКСИ ДIЄСЛIB
Модель Значення Приклади
N+ -(i) fy дія gasify, classify
A+ -(i) fy дія intensify, simplify
A+ -en дія moisten
N+ -en дія
N+ -ize дія computerize, modernize
N+ -ate дія indicate
ОСНОВНІ СУФІКСИ ПРИСЛІВНИКІВ
Модель Значення Приклади
A+ -ly змінює частину мови efficiently
N+ -ward напрямок backward (s)
Adv.+ -ward напрямок upward

КОНВЕРСIЯ
Конверсія – це спосіб словотвору, досить поширений в англійській мові, при якому від слова однієї частини мови утворюється слово іншої частини мови без зміни зовнішньої форми слова. Наприклад: to stop – a stop,
зупиняти – зупинка; water – to water, вода – поливати.
Найбільш поширеним є утворення іменника від відповідного дієслова:
V – N : to march – march; to run – run
Досить часто має місце і утворення дієслова від іменника:
N – V: pump – to pump
Часто дієслово утворюється від прикметників:
A – V: empty – to empty
СЛОВОСКЛАДЕННЯ
Складні слова утворюються шляхом об’єднання двох основ, наприклад, watercourse – русло, поток утворене від water (вода), course (течія, шлях).
SECTION I
Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension
1. Read the following international words and give their Ukrainian equivalents:
gas, atmosphere, reflect, molecule, absorb, temperature, concentration, radiation, result, climate, intensive, process, ozone, ecosystem, effect, indicator, agricultural zones, balance, biomass.
2. Learn symbols of chemical elements (See: Supplement) and give the wording of the following chemical formulas; learn their alternative names and translation
CO2 – carbon dioxide – двоокис вуглецю
CH4 – methane – метан
N2O – nitrous oxide – закис азоту
O3 – ozone gas – озон
СFCs – chlorofluorocarbons – фреон
freon – фреон
3. Translate the following into Ukrainian paying attention to wordbuilding means:
1. light, sunlight, sun;
2. warm (a), warmth, warming (n), warming (a), warm (v);
3. concentrate, concentration;
4. heat (n), to heat, heating up;
5. cultivate; cultivation, overcultivation;
6. contribute, contributor, contribution;
7. cool, cooling (n); climate, climatic, climatologist;
8. experience (n); experience (v), experienced;
9. possible, impossible, possibility;
10. to increase, increase (n), increasing (a);
11. reflect, reflecting, reflector;
12. to add, addition, additional;
13. indicate, indicator, indication, indicative;
14. human, humans, human-made, humanity;
15. double, to double, doubling (n);
16. explore, exploration, explorer;
17. result (n), result (v);
18. produce, production, producer, produce (n), productive;
19. pollute, pollution, pollutant, polluting gas;
20. different, differentiate, differentiated;
21. occur, occurence;
22. cause (n), cause (v).

4. Memorize the following words and expressions necessary to understand the text better:
greenhouse – теплиця, парник
outer space – космос
to keep the balance – підтримувати баланс
(the temperature, the heat) (температуру, тепло)
to let in – впускати
a blanket – ковдра
suitable for – підхожий, відповідний
to burn – горіти, спалювати
fossil fuels – (викопне) паливо
to release – звільняти, випускати
to distroy – руйнувати
to happen – траплятись, мати місце
panel – нарада фахівців
to come to the conclusion – прийти до висновку
to be responsible for – відповідати за
due to – дякуючи; із-за
cattle farming – розведення великої рогатої худоби
spray can – аерозоль
styrofoam – стирофом (теплоізоляційний пінопласт)
a hole – дірка, отвір
car traffic – автомобільний транспорт
power plant – електростанція
to predict – передбачати
to survive – виживати
to interrupt – переривати
ocean flow – океанська течія
rainfall pattern – режим опадів
hurricane – ураган
extreme drought – надзвичайно сильна засуха
flood – затопляти
shifting – зміна
extinction – вимирання, знищення
species – види
melting of glaciers – танення льодовиків
sea level – рівень моря
overgrazing – надмірний, неправильний випас
to cut the amount of – зменшувати кількість
demand for – потреба в ...
5. Read the text and carry out the following assignments:
a) find the paragraphs describing the main contributors to global warming;
b) explain the essence of greenhouse effect;
c) find the paragraphs containing the information about the expected effects of global warming and translate them into Ukrainian
CLIMATE CHANGE
1. The atmosphere surrounds the Earth like a transparent blanket. A mixture of different kinds of greenhouse gases allows the sunlight to enter. When this light is reflected by the Earth, not all of it leaves the atmosphere. Some of the gas molecules absorb the warmth of the sunlight, thus heating up the Earth. So the greenhouse effect is natural. It is the Earth’s balancing of the warmth it gets from the Sun and the cooling down by outer space. The natural greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are what keeps this balance. They act like a glass of a greenhouse: letting the sunrays in and keeping the heat inside by reflecting it back down to the Earth. Without the greenhouse gases it would be around 30oC colder than it is today. The concentration of several of these greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is growing. As a result, the lower layers of the atmosphere will heat up, and the Earth’s climate will change. The complicated balance between warming up and cooling down is being destroyed. This is what is called “the greenhouse effect”.
2. The most important gases responsible for this greenhouse effect are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone gas (O3) and CFCs.
The main contributor to global warming is CO2. Burning of fossil fuels and the destruction of forests have increased the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere considerably and are responsible for about 50% of the greenhouse effect.
The concentration of methane in the atmosphere has also increased due to human activities: intensive cattle farming, burning of biomass, rice agriculture and gas leakage during the exploration of fossil fuels. Methane contributes 19% to the global warming effect. CFCs (15% contribution) are used in spray cans, for cooling (in refrigerators and air-conditioning) and the production of styrofoam. Nitrious oxide (4% contribution) concentrations are rising due to the use of nitrogenous fertilizers and the burning of the biomass.
Ozone concentrations (8% contribution) in the lower layer of the atmosphere are increasing as a result of influence of sunlight on polluting gases such as carbon monoxide (due to increased traffic) and nitrogen oxide (due to the burning of fossil fuels). This process must be differentiated from the occurance of a hole in the ozone layer in the higher parts of the atmosphere, which is caused by CFCs.
3. The United Nations panel on climate change , staffed with the world’s best scientists, came to the conclusion in their 1994 report that there is no question – climate change is happening. The only question now is: how fast will it happen and what effects will it have on the Earth. The scientists also clearly named the main cause: human-made CO2.
4. Car traffic, power plants burning oil, gas and coal, house heating, deforestation are some of the many ways humans are producing excess CO2. The intergovernmental panel on climate change predicts that by the year 2050 there will be twice as much CO2 in the atmosphere as there was before the indusrtial revolution. This doubling of CO2 will warm the planet faster than anything experienced in the history of the mankind. The ecosystem of the Earth will not survive such a change.
5. "Global warming" will not make our summers nicer. Warming up the Earth will interrupt a complicated system of winds, ocean-flows, rainfall, etc. Heating up will be faster in some parts of the Earth than others, resulting in strong winds, hurricanes, extreme droughts, etc. 1995 was the hottest year since records began. 1994 was the fifth hottest. Climatologists are registering an increase in extreme weather events like the floods and storms in the last years. These very well may be the first indicators of climate change.
6. Expected effects of global warming may be disastrous including:
– a shifting of the world’s climatic and agricultural zones towards the poles, resulting in mass extinction of both plant and animal species;
– melting of glaciers and thermal expansion of sea water causing rising sea levels and flooding low coastal areas and small islands;
– changes in rainfall patterns making agriculture impossible in many areas and effecting fresh water supplies. In some places it may even get colder! The shifting of the Gulf stream, for example, could actually result in the Brittish Isles having the same climate as Iceland today.
7. We will have to cut the amount of CO2 we put out into the atmosphere BY HALF withing the next 50 years if we want to stop severe climate change. At the same time, the worldwide demand for energy will double because of the rising population and the need of poor countries.
8. If the world’s climate undergoes a major change, the face of the world will change right along with it. And that means that, unless we can slow the pace of the changes our own activities have set in motion, the Earth could become a very different world within the span of just a few generations. Now is the time to learn all we can about the nature of these changes – and to take positive action to bring them under control.
6. Find in the text the synonyms to the following words:
to depart, to warm, some, to grow, freon, greatly, thanks to, destruction of forests, to occur, to manufacture, humanity, heating up, to decrease, to release, needs.
7. Give English equivalents to the following words and phrases:
поглинати тепло, утримувати тепло всередині, відбивати, розведення великої рогатої худоби, в результаті впливу, викликати, вдвічі більше, електро¬станція, режим опадів, масове зникнення.
8. Give Ukrainian equivalents to the following words and phrases:
lower layer, to destroy, human activities, gas leakage, doubling, to result in, car traffic, drought, extreme weather events, fresh water supplies.
9. Answer the following question on the text:
1. What is the greenhouse effect?
2. What gases are responsible for the greenhouse effect?
3. What was the conclusion of the UN panel on climate change?
4. Will warming up the Earth be suitable for the development of agriculture?
5. What phenomena may be considered to be the first indicators of climate change?
6. What are the expected effects of global warming?
7. What can be done to stop severe climate change?
10. Say whether these statements are true or false, and if they are false say why:
1. The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is increasing due to a large quantity of greenery planted over the recent years.
2. The main cause of climate change is atmospheric carbon dioxide.
3. Human-made CO2 is produced by car traffic, burning of fossil fuels, deforestation and intensive cattle farming.
4. Global warming means nicer summers and further possibilities for farming.
5. People can do nothing to stop climate change because the demand for energy will grow together with the rise of population.
11. Analyse Table 2 “The Greenhouse Gases”*, find some gas sources which haven’t been mentioned in the text. Having learned the meaning of each term, speak about the most important gases responsible for greenhouse effect using Table 2.

 

Table 2.
The Greenhouse Gases Concentration

Gas
Carbon Dioxide CO2

Fossil Fuel Combustion – 80%
Deforestation – 20%
Changing Land Use
Biomass Burning

 

Methane CH4

Enteric Fermentation in Cattle and Insects – 30%
Biomass Burning and Waste
Burial – 15%
Coal Mines and Gas Leaks – 10%
Rice Paddies – 25%
Swamps and Tundra – 20%

 

CFCs

Aerosols – 30%
Refrigeration – 30%
Air Conditioning
Plastic Foams – 32 %
Computer Industry
Sterilants for Medical Purposes

 

Nitrous Oxide N2O

Fertiliser Use
Fossil Fuels Combustion
Biomass Burning
Changing Land Use

 

 

 

Ozone O3 (Tropospheric)

Reactions involving pollutants such as methane, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sunshine

 

12. Give titles to each paragraph of the text and retell it according to the plan obtained.
SECTION II
Structure and Written Expressions
1. Translate into Ukrainian paying attention to passive constructions:
– When this light is reflected by the Earth, not all of it leaves the atmosphere.
– The complicated balance between warming up and cooling down is being destroyed.
– CFCs are used in spray cans, for cooling and production of styrofoam.
– This process must be differentiated from the occurance of a hole in the ozone layer in the higher parts of the atmosphere, which is caused by CFCs.
2. Make up sentences using the following words and phrases:
– Is probably synonymous with, “air pollution”, smog, the term, for most people.
– Sulphur dioxide, coal-burning power plants, in the same area, often, acid-producing, that spews out of, doesn’t fall back to earth.
– Causes rubber and other materials to deteriorate, called ozone, irritates your eyes, a toxic gas, burns your throat, damages crops and forests.
– Of desertification in Africa, to land use, the principal causes, appeared related, especially through overcultivation, overgrazing and the cutting down of trees.
– The increased number of cattle, overgrazing, is caused by.
SECTION III
Listening Comprehension
1. Study the denotative graph of the following tape-recorded text. Make sure that you know all the terms used in the graph.

DENOTATIVE GRAPH 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

AIR POLLUTION

1. In fact, some of the major environmental problems of our time – acid rain, ozone depletion, and the possibility of global climate change, among them – all result from air pollution.
2. Coal, oil, and other fossil fuels are the source of power behind a lot of what we do every day. These fuels generate most of the energy used throughout the industrialized world.
Unfortunately, they also generate most of the world’s air pollution. That’s because we burn fossil fuels to get the energy out of them. And this combustion process creates a lot of waste, much of it in the form of toxic gases.
3. Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulphur dioxide are some of the most dangerous gases produced during fossil fuel combustion. Of these, carbon monoxide is the most directly harmful to life because it’s poisonous in very small amounts and it’s produced in huge concentrations. In contrasts, carbon monoxide’s “cousin”, carbon dioxide (CO2), is relatively nontoxic. But it plays a key role in the greenhouse effect by trapping heat rather than allowing it to escape into space. The other oxides – sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxides – become most dangerous when they combine with other substances creating problems such as smog and acid rains.
4. Gases are not the only air pollutants resulting from fossil fuel combustion. Tiny bits of dust, metal soot, and other materials, called particulates, also find their way into the atmosphere from sources such as diesel engines and power plants. Particulates can cause respiratory diseases, cancer, and other health problems. Fossil fuel combustion spews out plenty of particulates, but there are also many other sources of these pollutants. For example, construction projects can kick up a lot of dust. And wood-burning stoves and fire places can produce large amounts of smoke and ash (not to mention carbon dioxide and other gases). So can the burning of tropical forests.
5. It’s not just what gets dumped into the air that causes problems; it’s also how the individual pollutants interact with each other, water, and/or sunlight. And sometimes pollutants interact with atmospheric conditions-creating problems that, at first glance, might not seem to have much to do with polluted air. Acid rain is one result of “interactive” pollution. It starts with fossil fuel combustion- mostly from power plants and cars. Sulphur dioxide, originating mainly from coal-burning power plants, and nitrogen oxides, from both power plants and cars, are the gases at fault. Once in the air, these gases combine with water droplets and form sulphuric and nitric acids. The acid can fall as rain or snow, or they can hover near the ground as a fog. Acid “rain” can even fall to earth as dry particles. Although many people use “acid rain” to refer to both wet and dry acid precipitation, some scientists prefer the term “acid deposition”.
6. Fifteen to twenty miles above the earth’s surface, ozone occurs naturally in a zone of the atmosphere called the stratosphere, where it blocks out harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun. Ironically, though, certain human-caused pollutants react with this “good ozone”, causing it to break down. The gases called chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, are the main culprits. Unlike most other major sources of air pollution, CFCs are not formed from the combustion of fossil fuels.
There’re used as cooling agents in refrigerators and air conditioners and as propellants in certain products sold as sprays. They’re also used in the production of some polystyrene foam products, such as Styrofoam. But when CFCs get into the atmosphere they “attack” the ozone layer. The result is ozone depletion.
7. CFC are dangerous to the atmosphere in more ways than one. Besides destroying ozone, they also play a role in the greenhouse effect – a natural process in which certain gases acting like the glass walls that allow the sun’s radiation in – and then keep the heat it produces from getting out. Under normal circumstances this phenomenon wouldn’t be a problem (in fact, it keeps the Earth from getting too cold to sustain life). But because people are adding more greenhouse gases to the atmosphere than occur there naturally, many scientists are concerned that we may be drastically changing the atmosphere’s chemistry.
2. Render the text using Denotative graph 3.
3. Do you know that:
The ozone supply is constantly being recycled. When an ozone molecule absorbs UV light, the molecule splits apart. A new ozone molecule soon forms the “old parts”. If left undisturbed, this cycle maintains a balance of ozone in the atmosphere.
CFCs Enter the Picture: Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, were invented in 1930. Many different kinds of CFCs have been developed since then. Because they are so stable (that is, they will not easily react with other chemicals) and nontoxic, CFCs have been used to make a variety of products such as aerosol propellents, coolants, and plastic foam. (Some plastic foam products are now being made with CFCs-substitutes, but there’s no way to distinguish these products from those made with CFC-containing foam. And many CFC substitutes, such as HCFCs, also harm the ozone layer. )
Ozone Wreckers: As a CFC molecule drifts above the ozone layer, it’s bombarded by the UV rays of the sun. This splits apart the CFC molecule, releasing an atom of chlorine, which in turn “attacks” an ozone molecule in such a way that it can’t recombine to form a new ozone molecule. This disrupts the ozone cycle, resulting in a net loss of ozone.
Scientists have found that a single chlorine atom can destroy up to 100,000 ozone molecules before it becomes inactive or drifts down to the lower atmosphere. This means that introducing just a small quantity of CFCs into the atmosphere can have a big effect on the ozone layer. Scientists have also found that some types of CFCs are more harmful than others, because thay last longer in the atmosphere (about 100 years) and release more chlorine molecules.
3. Prove that a chlorine atom is rather active.
4. Read “Learning about Debate” in the Supplements and the points of view of two scientists. Express your own opinion on the climate change problem. Arrange discussion on the problem.
5. Learn and role-play the extract from the perfomance “The Awful Eight” (See: Supplements).

 

 

 

LESSON FIVE
GRAMMAR
The Passive Voice
Стан – це форма дієслова, що виражає відношення підмета (суб’єкта дії) до присудка (дії).
Активний стан – the Active Voice – показує, що особа або предмет, яку називає підмет (1), виконує дію, яку називає присудок (2); ця дія може переходити на предмет, що виступає прямим додатком (3):
1 2  3
Пaсивний стан – the Passive Voice – показує, що особа або предмет, яких називає підмет, відчуває на собі дію, яку називає присудок:
1  2 (by) ...
Iншими словами, пасивний стан вживається тоді, коли в центрі уваги є особа або предмет, на які спрямована дія, тобто об’єкт дії, а не агент дії.

УТВОРЕННЯ ФОРМ INDEFINITE, CONTINUOUS, PERFECT PASSIVE ДІЄСЛОВА TO DAMAGE

Indefinite Continuous Perfect
Present is (are)
damaged is (are) being
damaged have/has been damaged
Past was (were)
damaged was/were being damaged had been damaged
Future will be
damaged _____ will have been damaged

Переклад речень з дієсловом у пасивному стані

На українську мову дієслова в пасивному стані перекладаються:
1. Сполученням дієслова “бути” з дієприкметником пасивного стану минулого часу: були пошкоджені.
2. Дієсловом з часткою -ся (-сь): відкрилась.
3. Дієсловом в активному стані в неозначено особових реченнях (=дієслову
в 3 особі множини): My car was stolen last week. Минулого тижня мою машину вкрали.
4. Трансформуванням дієслова в пасивному стані в активний. Цей спосіб стосується тільки речень з дієсловом у пасивному стані, в яких вказано суб’єкт дії (перед ним стоїть прийменник by). Такі речення можна перекласти на українську мову особовим реченням з дієсловом-присуд-ком в активному стані: The next day it was found by the police. Наступного дня поліція знайшла її.
SECTION I
Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension.
1. Read the following international words and give their Ukraininan equivalents.
community, center, adequate, localized, ecological structure, classify, hydrosphere, dynamic, system, physiochemical, biological, normal, active, assimilate, regeneration, planning, process, resources, distribute, continent, intensive, compensate, exploitation, energy, transport, rationally, mineral, expansion, industry, natural, phenomenon, companion, constant.
2. Define the meaning of the following words by word-building means:
1. add, addition;
2. adequate, inadequate;
3. exploit, exploitation;
4. consume, consumer, consumption, consumed;
5. rational, rationally;
6. distribute, distributor, distribution, redistribution, to redistribute;
7. to increase, increase, increasing (a), increasingly;
8. new (a), to renew, renewable;
9. grow, growth, growing;
10. initial, initially;
11. pollute, pollutant, pollution, polluted;
12. water, waterway, to water, watered;
13. contaminate, contaminated, contamination;
14. generate, regenerate, regeneration, generation, generator;
15. plan, to plan, planning, planned;
16. ground, underground;
17. even, evenly, uneven, unevenly;
18. protect, protection, protected, protector;
19. pure, purify, purification, purified, purity;
20. like, unlike;
21. vary, various, variously, variety, variable, invariable, varied.
3. Memorize the following words and expressions necessary to understand the text better:
exist – існувати
water supply – забезпечення водою, водопостачання
to mean (meant) – означати, значити
valley – долина
receptackle – вмістище
waste – відходи
to define – визначати
to describe – описувати
detrimental effect – шкідливий вплив
it is apparent – очевидно
to involve – включати, містити
to take on a new meaning – набирати нового значення
a body of water – водний масив
to affect – діяти, впливати, уражати
to upset – порушувати
equilibria – рівновага
there is no doubt – без сумніву
capacities to assimilate wastes – здатність поглинати відходи
to reach – досягати
to exceed – перевищувати
to contaminate – забруднювати
readily noticeable – відразу, легко помітний
with careful planning – при ретельному плануванні
to bring back into full use – повернути до повноцінного
використання
on a large scale – в широкому масштабі
effluent waters – річкові води
discharge – водоскид
even – рівномірний
depletion – виснаження
means of treatment – засіб очистки
recreation site – зона відпочинку
to hunt – полювати
it is obvious – очевидно
a sharp increase – різкий підйом
water consumption – споживання води
lead to – призводити до
water shortage – нестача води
to work out measures – розробити заходи
reservoir – водойма
supplies – запаси
moisture – волога
4.Read the text and carry out the following assignments:
a) find the definition of the term “pollution” and translate it into Ukrainian.
b) examine Table 4 given in the text, make sure you know all the terms used in it and comment in your native language on the sources of pollution of water resources in Ukraine.
c) find paragraphs dealing with some problems of water use.
d) suggest a title for the text given below.
TEXT A
1. Since man cannot exists without water, community development and city growth centered in areas where the water supplies were adequate and continuous. Initially this meant development in river valleys, and thus the nearest receptackle for wastes was the river.
2. The term “pollution” has been variously defined by many people, but if it may be described here as “the detrimental effects on the localized ecological structure by the addition of the waste products of a society” then it is apparent that the first noticeable pollution problems should have involved the supply of drinking water.
3. It is in this particular area that the question of pollution takes on a new meaning. Is a body of water polluted when it directly affects man, or should it be classified as polluted when the ecological structure is first upset? The hydrosphere is a dynamic system containing physiochemical and biological equilibria, and there is no doubt that a normal active waterway has a large capcity to assimilates wastes. However, in many areas this capacity is now being reached or exceeded so that many waterways are becoming increasingly contaminated. Before this contamination becomes readily noticeable, however, equilibria are changed and the ecological structure may be seriously affected. Some examples of water systems where the effects of pollution have become or are becoming increasingly apparent are the Adriatic, Baltic, and Mediterranean seas; the Thames, Rhine and Seine rivers; and the great lakes in America or Canada. But dynamic systems have a remarkable capacity for regeneration, and with careful planning even the most seriously polluted waterways may be brought back into full use. An example of river regeneration on a large scale is the successful attempt to restore the Thames estuary.
4. Extract from the National report on the state of the environment in Ukraine, 1993 defines the following sources of pollution of water resources in Ukraine:

Table 4.
Discharge effluent waters,mil.cu.meters per annum
Branch of economy Without purification Insufficient-ly purified Normally clean without purifiction Normally clean after purification %
Industry 345 1112 9704 1248 63,4
Agriculture 45 3 3188 9 16,6
Municipal economy 111 1250 114 341 19,5
Other branches 2 32 32 290 0,5
Total for Ukraine 503 2,397 13038 1888 100

5. The water and the air are the most important elements in physical and chemical processes on the surface of the earth. Resources of river, lake and underground fresh waters are distributed very unevenly on the continents.
Shortage of water in different areas of the world is due not only to uneven distribution of water resources but also to its more varied and intensive use. The Law on Conservation of Nature states that all rivers, lakes and underground waters are to be protected from depletion and pollution as water supply resources, a source of energy and means of treatment.Rivers and lakes are also used as transport routes, fisheries, hunting areas and recreation sites.
6. It is obvious that the exploitation of water resources is extremely varied at the present time. It should be added that the scope of water resources exploitation is growing rapidly due to population growth, fast development of industry and expansion of irrigated land area.
7. A sharp increase in water consumption on the planet may lead to a water shortage in the near future. In view of this, mesures are being worked out to increase water resources and rationally exploit them. One of them is redistribution of water. There are two ways to redistribute river water: by means of reservoirs and through canals.
8. Another way of incresing water resources and their rational exploitation is the use of underground water. Supplies of underground waters are considerable, and, therefore, their rational use helps to compensate for moisture shortages. Unlike mineral deposits, water resources are renewed in the course of exploitation.
5. Find in the text synonyms to the following words:
pollution, live, increase(n), to damage, readily noticeable, rehabilitation, quick, enlargement, to use, with the help of, stocks.
6. Find in the text antonyms to the following words:
inadequate supply, purification, evenly, excess of water, to cause, scarce, like, to decrease.
7. Give Ukrainian equivalents to the following words:
drinking water, underground water, supply of fresh water, in the course of, fisheries, hunting areas, extremely varied, due to, in view of this.
8. Answer the following questions on the text:
1. Where did ancient people prefer to settle?
2. What sphere is the first to react to the pollution problems?
3. Why are water resources to be protected from depletion and pollution?
4. Is the scope of water resources exploitation growing?Why?
5. What are the ways of rational use of water resources?
9. Correct the following statements:
1. Water is considered polluted when it directly affects man.
2. The main problem in water supply is that we have very scarce water resources.
3. The main uses of water resources are fisheries and recreation.
4. Water reservoirs are usually built on small rivers and help to solve energy problems, water supply for industry, agriculture, towns and so on.
5. Like many other mineral deposits, water resources are renewable.
10. Write down textual word-building chains (TWBC) with roots “pollute” and “contaminate” from paragraphs 2-4 and with roots “use” and “exploit” from paragraphs 5-8. State the microtopics of the above-mentioned paragraphs taking into account that TWBC are theme descriptors.
10. Make up a denotative graph of the text end retell the text using this graph.
SECTION II
Structure and Written Expression
1. Write out of the text sentences with verbs in the Passive Voice and translate them into Ukrainian.
2. Make up sentences of the following words:
1. One of the, the salvation of the Dnipro, main ecological problems, is, of Ukraine.
2. One ton of dry cement, is required, 20 000 litres of water, to produce.
3. Crop failures, water shortage, serious, can be caused, serious, by.
4. Is needed, and, many regions, water power, in, to turn dynamos, generate electric power.
5. And, those of soil erosion, of flood control, are closely connected, the problems.
3. Make these sentences passive omitting the agent phrase.
1. We will not make decision until the text meeting.
2. People don’t use this road very often.
3. They are building a new ring-road round the city.
4. They didn’t ask me my name.
5. I haven’t done this exercise for today.
4. Translate into English:
1. Використання та збереження грунтових водойм України тісно пов’язані з гідроекологією, яка вивчає роль грунтових вод в геологічних процесах.
2. Грунтові води забруднюються відходами промисловості, добривами, хімічними гербіцидами та пестицидами, муніципальними стічними водами і т.п.
3. Кількість шкідливих відходів потрібно зменшити.
4. Про цю конференцію багато говорили.
SECTION III
Listening Comprehension.
1. Listen to the tape-recorded text and be ready to choose the best answer for the following questions:
1. Where is the major part of mineral water deposits situated in our country?
2. Are any Ukrainian towns and settlements served by undreground water?
3. What are the main sources of underground water pollution in Ukraine?
4. What concept does prof. Mykola Ohnyanyk, Doctor of Geological-Mineralogical Sciences, professor at Kyiv University put forward?

 

UNDERGROUND WATERS OF UKRAINE
1. The role of underground waters in the economic drinking water supply of Ukraine can be hardly overestimated in our age of a damaged ecology.
2. Today in the eleven regions of Ukraine over 50% of the water supply is provided from underground reservoirs. 50 out of 186 urban centers are served exclusively by underground water.
3. Within Ukraine there are rich deposits of underground mineral waters, having unique medicinal properties. For example, mineral waters like ”Naftusya” can remove radionuclides from the human organism. There are nearly sixty deposits of underground mineral waters in Ukraine, mostly in the Carpathian regions.
It is known that underground waters (the most valuable minerals, as academician Karpinskyi said) are polluted by wastes from industry, mining, fertilizers, chemical herbicides and pesticides, sewage, etc. There is no need to demonstrate the obvious point that the quantity of harmful wastes must be decreased and considerable efforts should be made to this end.
4. The pollution of ground water may continue in various areas of Ukraine for many years, perhaps decades, if all surface production of wastes stopped completely. The issue here is concealed pollution, that is, pollution already accumulated in the soil and which can move through the drainage systems to the underground reservoirs.
5. In our view, the conservation and rational use of ground water should be based on the concept of pollution control, consisting in limiting the amount of pollution hazardous to ground water quality to a predetermined level. Such an approach can take advantage of the natural process of the selfpurification of ground water on the basis of a complex of administrative and engineering measures. The development of these measures demands scientific explanation on the basis of serious and purposeful research. First of all, they are: observavtion of the natural and technological points of ground water renewal; evaluation of their status and of the processes which are taking place; forecasting the hydro-geological state of affairs, and properly developing measures for ground water management. This can be carried out on the basis of a dynamic hydro-geological model, with the help of which experiments can be made, and the purpose of which is to develop proper administrative decisions.
The adoption today of the idea of the controlled pollution of ground water, which in turn requires the creation of sound models of ecological, including hydro-geological, management, using mathematical computer models, must become the basis of our ecological policy while we move toward essential changes in the rational use of nature.
3. Speak about some strategies for the protection of ground water in Ukraine.
4. Do you know that:
Though Great Britain is considered to be a very rainy country there are some people in England who want more rain and in fact they need it badly. Two or three weeks without rain and they have water problems, as it was in summer of 1976. The fact is that the rain falls in the wrong place; then, in England there are no good big enough reservoirs to keep water for a rainless period and partly water is used by the people much more than they need.
Most of Britain rains fall in Wales and Scotland; it isn’t there but in the drier South-East England and midlands that it is needed. Of course this water is kept and sent to other parts of the country.For example, the second largest city in England, Birmingham, gets all its water from North Wales. But the reservoirs are now hundred years old and need to be much larger. Both at home and in the factories much more water than a hundred years ago is used. It takes 100 000 gallons of water to make one car.
Much water, enough for the whole of London, is lost every day uselessly. Finally, what is left in rivers is made so bad by factories and plants that it can’t be used.The answer to the problem isn’t simple. First, a way of keeping the water in the rivers, lakes and seas clean must be found. Factories needn’t use so much; they must learn to re-use the water.
The new reservoirs need building. Finally, new ways of using water from the sea must be studied.
According to Felix Ryan from Madras, India, it is possible to distil 1,25 litre of seawater to 1 litre of good drinking water in half an hour. Look at Fig.1.The steam from the boiling seawater condensates on the cold bottom of the upper pot and drips into the small inner pot. The small pot filled with mud provides space and insulation between the fire and the desalinated water, thus preventing it from evaporating.

 

Fig. 1.

4. Using Fig. 1. speak about the process of seawater destillation.