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LESSON SIX

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LESSON SIX 25.07.2015 07:34

 

LESSON SIX

GRAMMAR

PARTICIPLE (ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИК)

Серед чотирьох основних форм англійського дієслова (Infinitive, Past Indefinite, Past Participle, Present Participle) дві останніх є дієприкметниками. Дієприкметник - це неособова форма дієслова, яка поєднує в собі властивості дієслова, прикметника та прислівника. В ангійській мові існує два дієприкметники: теперішньго часу (Present Participle або Participle I) та минулого часу (Past Participle або Participle II).

Participle I утворюється від інфінітива дієслова без частки to за допомогою суфікса - ing:

                            той, хто запитує                                          той, хто робить

ask – asking                                                        make - making

запитуючи                                                  роблячи

Participle II правильних дієслів утворюється від інфінітива дієслова без частки to за допомогою суфікса -ed: open - opened (відкритий), develop - developed (розвинутий). Participle II неправильних дієслів можна знайти в таблиці неправильних дієслів (III форма дієслова): see - seen (побачений), write - written (написаний).

 

 


Форми дієприкметника

 

Час

Активний стан

Пасивний стан

Неперехідні

Перехідні

Present Participle (Participle I)

coming

writing

being written

Past Participle (Participle II)

come

written

Perfect Participle

having come

having written

having been written

 

Функції дієприкметника

 

 

Participle I

Participle II

Означення

Праве

Wastes entering wasterwater treatment plant – відходи, що поступають на водоочисну споруду

Soil polluted by heavy metals –грунт, забруднений важкими металами

Ліве

A digging unit – землерийний пристрій

Widespread substances – широко поширені речовини

Обставина

Studying a few new words every day you will know English well.

Вивчаючи по декілька нових слів щодня, Ви добре знатимете англійську мову.

Cooled to -5°C the liquid turns into ice.

Охолоджуючись до - 5°С, ця рідина перетворюється на лід.

 

Частина присудка

Technology in the water treatment is evolving rapidly.

Технологія водоочистки швидко розвивається.

Forest belts are intended to protect the soil.

Лісосмуги призначені захищати грунт

People have always suffered from floods.

Люди завжди cтраждали від паводків

 

 

 

SECTION I

Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension.

  1. 1.       Read the following international words and give their Ukrainian equivalents:

Protection, erosion, destruction, storm, period, measure, effective,  characteristic, vegetation, distance, condition, section, economy,  activity, balance, mass, natural, human, origin, exploitation, resource,  stable, regulate, canal, process, conservation, deposit, preserve, hy draulic, system, aesthetic, recreation.

2.   Define the meaning of following words by word – building andtranslate them into Ukrainian:

1. effect, effective, effectless.

2. regulate, regulation,  regulating, regulated, unregulated.

3. erosion, erosive, eroded, uneroded.

4. destroy, destroyer, destructive, destruction.

5. protect, protection, protective, protector.

6. nature, natural, naturally, naturalist.

7. prevent, prevention, preventing, preventive, prevented.

8. expect, expectation, expecting, expected, unexpectedly.

9. active, activity, activate, actively, activization, inactive.

10. stable, stability, stabilize, stabilization, unstable.

11. exploit, exploitation, exploiting, exploited, unexploited.

12. excess, excessive.

13. order, ordered, disorder, disorderly.

14. part, parted, participate, participation.

15. conserve, conservator, conservative, conservation.

16. preserve, preservative, preservation.

17. direct,direction, director, directly, indirect.

18. create, creature, creation, creative, recreative, recreation.

19. moist, moisture, moisturize.

3.   Memorize the following words and expressions necessary tocomprehend the text:

layer                                         – шар

occur                                        – відбуватися, траплятися

slope                                        – схил

improper                                  – недосконалий

sparse                                                – рідкий, мізерний

bit                                             – частинка

throw                                       – кидати

store                                         – зберегати, відновити

loss                                           – втрата

irretrievable                              – непоправний

retention                                   – збереження

mud                                          – бруд

avalanche                                 – лавина

steep                                         – крутий

gorge                                        – ущелина

inflict                                        – спричиняти

adjacent                                    – сусідній

suffer                                        – страждати

dump                                        – скидати

pile                                           – купа

disrupt                                               – руйнувати

loose                                         – сипкий

grazing                                     – випасання

denuded                                    – оголений

prohibit                                    – перешкоджати

random                                     – безладний

refuse                                       – рештки

explosion                                 – вибух

ban                                           – забороняти

check dam                                – запобіжна дамба

in  terms of                               – з точки зору

silt                                            – мул

meadow                                    – лука

intend                                       – призначати

reduce                                                – зменшувати

habitat                                               – середовище проживання

4.   Read the text and carry out the following assignments:

a) find the sentences describing kinds of soil erosion;

b) find the paragraphs concerning  anti–erosion measures;

c) find the paragraphs concerning the most effective protection from soil erosion.

TEXT A

PROTECTION OF SOIL AGAINST EROSION

Soil erosion is the destruction and wearing away of the soil by water or wind. A layer of soil formed in the course of 100 or 200 years may be destroyed in a few days by heavy rain or dust storms. The soil is rapidly destroyed but forms only over a very lengthy period. That is why it is so vitally important to protect the soil.

Soil erosion by water is widespread and most destructive. It occurs on slopes and is due to improper working of the land.

Soil erosion by water is bad for agriculture in all respects.  Grain harvests on strongly eroded soils are half those on uneroded soils.

Fighting any kind of soil erosion always requires a set of anti-erosion measures. No  measure alone is effective.

Soil erosion by wind is characteristic mostly of open, dry, diffused soils. It may arise on any field with sparse vegetation.

In wind erosion, the wind usually blows small bits of soil over the surface. When the wind grows stronger, these bits not only roll over the surface of the field but are even thrown into the air for distance of 3 to 4 meters.

A cloud of dust raised and driven over a field where the soil is destroyed by the wind is called a dust storm. Sometimes, the wind may erode 1 to 5 cm of soil from field. In natural conditions, it takes 250 to 300 years to store one cm of soil. Soil loss is thus irretrievable.

Measures against wind erosion include: firstly, protection of fields against the wind; and secondly, retention of moisture in the soil, because moist soil is firmer, plants grow quicker and more thickly on it, preventing the wind from destroying the soil.

Mud and stone streams (avalanches) in the mountains are a form of soil erosion which occurs at great speed due to steep slopes and narrow gorges. Beginning unexpectedly in small mountain streams, the streams of foaming water, mud and stones move down with the speed of a train bringing death and destruction. They bury off railways and motor roads, houses, entire towns.

Mud and stone streams inflict great damage on people and the economy in mountain areas. The people living in the countries of Europe adjacent to the Alps have always suffered from them and they occur in the mountainous west of North and South America.

Mud and stone streams caused by human activities occur when the latter are incorrectly conducted in the mountains, such as mining enterprises dumping waste on steep slopes. Strong rain erodes these waste piles and disrupts the unstable balance of the loose waste masses. Dozens or even hundreds of thousands of cubic meters of soil and stones are driven by the water down mountain rivers. It is not surprising that avalanches due to human activities occur much more often than natural ones.

The second cause of mud and stone streams of human origin is incorrect exploration of plant resources and excessive cattle grazing in the mountains. If forests are cut down in the mountains or cattle graze for too long on denuded slopes, the soil becomes unstable.

The best way of fighting mud and stone streams is to plant forests in river valleys where they occur, prohibit the random falling of trees on mountain slopes, the disorderly dumping of refuse ore by mining enterprises and the destruction of rock by explosions. Cattle grazing should be strictly regulated in the mountains, and banned completely in places where the danger of mud and stone streams is particularly great. At the same time, permanent hydraulic works-drainage canals, check dams and so on should be set up in river valleys.

The process of  bank erosion is of particular interest in terms of soil conservation as is the washing away of soil during floods in the flood land and depositing of sand and silt in the flood land and river bed.

It is most important to preserve the rich floodland soils. Floodland meadows are the most fertile soil.

Protective forestation. There are two main types of protective forest belts: water regulating and wind breaking. The first type is intended to protect the soil from water erosion. These belts are planted across slopes.

Wind-breaking forest belts are quite different. Their purpose is to reduce wind speed on the fields between the belts.

None of the anti-erosion measures and hydraulic works can be effective without protective forest belts. In the places where the forest belt system has been created with due account of the direction of the most harmful winds, crops and soil are not harmed by the wind and harvests are higher, as a rule.

These belts should also be considered as the habitual of wild animals, recreation sites and in terms of their aesthetic value.

5.   Give determination to the following notions:

soil erosion, wind erosion, mud and stone streams, bank erosion, protective forestation, water regulating forest belts, wind breaking forest belts.

6.   Choose one word which fits  best each blank:

  1. Soil erosion is the destruction and ... away of the soil (taking, moving, wearing).
  2. A layer of soil formed during 100 or 200 years may be ... in several days. (ruined, thrown, destroyed).
  3. Fighting erosion ... a set of anti-erosion measures (needs, requires, occurs).
  4. Mud and stone streams ... in mountains (occur, happen, raise).
  5. Some human activity may be the ... of avalanche (origin, destruction, cause).

7.   Translate into English using active vocabulary of the text:

Лавина – це маса снігу, що падає з гірських верших та схилів. Дуже часто лавини призводять до великих руйнацій, оскільки їх об’єм досягає 2 млн.м3. Найчастіше лавини трапляються в Альпах, Кордільєрах, на Кавказі. Велику загрозу лавини становлять для туристів, спортсменів та робітників, які працюють в горах.

8.   Write down textual word-building chain (TWBC) with the root «destr-» from the first two paragraphs of the text. State the microtopic of these paragraphs basing on the TWBC as a theme descriptor.

9.   Answer the following questions on the text:

  1. What is soil erosion?
  2. What is soil erosion caused by?
  3. What areas mostly undergo wind erosion?
  4. What time is necessary to restore 1 cm of soil?
  5. When do avalanches occur?
  6. Does some human activity cause soil erosion?
  7. Why  is protective forestation the most effective anti-erosion measure?

10. Suggest subtitles for each paragraph of the text.

11. Express the main idea of the text in Ukrainian in the shortest possible way and write down your annotation.

12. Render the text according to  Denotative graph 5 given below.

13. Complete the denotative graph by your own information on:

  1. the reasons of man-made wind erosion;
  2. the measures of protecting the soil from water erosion and avalanches.

 

 

 

 

 

 

SECTION II

Structure and Written Expression

  1. 1.       Translate the sentences with Participles I and II, comment on their forms and functions.
  2. Mud and stone streams caused by human activities occur when the latter are incorrectly conducted in the mountains.
    1. Measures against wind erosion include forest belts: they grow quickly, preventing the wind from eroding the soil.
    2. Mud and stone move down with the speed of a train bringing death and destruction.
    3. Beginning in small mountain streams, the streams of water move down.
    4. The chemical conditions existing in soils determine the reaction of soil.
    5. On the desalinated lands comparatively good harvests have been obtained.
    6. Many operations are used to purify water.
    7. Miss Brodrick, though not personally well known in the town, had been well spoken about.
    8. Prepared, I formed project.
    9. Watching them, he raised his coffee up.

 

2.   Translate into English using Participles:

1. Водна та вітрова ерозія є руйнівними факторами.

2. Потоки мулу та каміння можуть бути зумовлені людською діяльністю.

3. Добре сплановане лісонасадження захищає землю.

4. Вода тече з гір, несучи каміння та мул з собою.

5. Дерева насаджуються також на крутих схилах.

3.   Choose the sentences with the Infinitives used as adverbial modifiers:

  1. With every passing year salts accumulate in the soil forming a crust on the surface.
  2. The chemical conditions existing in soils determine the reaction of soil.
  3. Bioluminescence is light emitted by living organisms.
  4. The shade under a tree prevents sunlight from reaching the ground, cooling the area in the shade.

4.  Make up questions to have the following answers:

  1. Soil erosion is widespread.
  2. Soil erosion by wind is characteristic mostly of open, dry, diffused areas.
  3. Protecting the soil from the wind and preserving moisture in it, people protect land from wind erosion.
  4. Sections of railways and highways, houses, entire towns may be buried by avalanches.
  5. Mud and stone streams may be caused by mining enterprises.
  6. Man-caused avalanches occur much more often than nature ones.
  7. Soils are made unstable by excessive cattle grazing and forest cutting.
  8. Forestation is considered to be the best way to restore the soil.
  9. River banks are often damaged by floods.
  10. People and economy of mountain areas may be greatly damaged by mud and stone streams.

 

 

SECTION III

Listening Comprehension

1.   Listen to the tape-recorded text below and be ready to choose the best answers for the following questions:

  1. When is soil left bare?
  2. What happens when rain falls on the bare soil?
  3. How people can conserve water in the soil?
  4. What property has a forest "floor"?
  5. Why can springs and wells dry up in summer?
  6. What else is the most important part of water conservation?

TEXT B.

FORESTS SAVE WATER

When we cut down the trees or plow under grass, the land is left bare, with nothing on it to hold back the water. Every time when it rains the water flows over the land and is carried out into the sea where we can’t use it. This water carries soil and minerals away. Often there is so much water that rivers flood. The water is wasted.

We can conserve water by planting trees, grass or other vegetation.

The "floor" of the forest absorbs water from rain and snow. The soil of grasslands also absorbs water this way.

A bare soil lets rain and melting snow run over its surface. This may cause flood in rivers in spring. But in summer the streams and rivers dry up because the bare soil has not enough water in it. This means that springs will stop running and wells will dry up.

Millions of hectares are made bare each years by forest fires. So fire prevention is a most important part of water conservation.

3.   Do you know that...

–  man is supported on earth by a few inches of topsoil;

–  rich productive farmland is a mixture of minerals, bits of plant and animal tissue, living organisms, air and water;

–  irrigation is one of anti-erosion measures;

–  UNESCO declared April, 22 to be the International Earth Day.

4.   Role playing

Student A.

Interview a representative of the ecological organization «Rainbow Keepers» about the history and importance of International Earth Day.

Student B.

You are a member of the «Rainbow Keepers» ecological organization. Inform your listeners about the International Earth Day.

5.   Organize a round-table discussion on soil-erosion problems of our region.

6.   Get ready to deliver a speech on soil-erosion problems at an international seminar of  land-management specialists.


LESSON SEVEN

GRAMMAR

ДIЄПРИКМЕТНИКОВI КОМПЛЕКСИ
(PARTICIPLE  COMPLEXES)

Дієприкметники можуть утворювати об’єктний, суб’єктний та незалеж­ний дієприкметникові комплекси.

ОБ’ЄКТНИЙ ДIЄПРИКМЕТНИКОВИЙ КОМПЛЕКС
(OBJECTIVE PARTICIPLE COMPLEX)

Об’єктний дієприкметниковий комплекс виконує в реченні функцію складного додатка (object) – звідси й походить його назва. Складається він з двох частин: іменника в загальномувідмінку або особового займенника в об’єктному відмінку (me, you, him, her, it, us, them) та дієприкметника.

Вживається цей комплекс  після дієслів: to see, to hear, to watch, to consider, to understand, to want, to desire, to feel, to find.

He saw clouds gathering.                          – Він бачив, що збираються хмари.

You will find your sister grown.                 – Ти знайдеш, що твоя сестра подо-

    рослішала. 

СУБ’ЄКТНИЙ ДIЄПРИКМЕТНИКОВИЙ КОМПЛЕКС           (SUBJECTIVE PARTICIPLE COMPLEX)

Назва цього комплексу походить від слова subject (підмет): саме таку функцію він виконує в реченні. Суб’єктний комплекс, як і об’єктний, також складається з двох частин: перша – іменник в загальному відмінку або особовий займенник в називному відмінку, друга – дієприкметник. Важливою ознакою цього комплексу є те, що його частини розділені присудком речення у пасивному стані.

         They were heard talking together.     – Було чути, що вони розмовляли.

         The book was considered finished.   – Вважали, що книжка завершена.

НЕЗАЛЕЖНИЙ ДIЄПРИКМЕТНИКОВИЙ КОМПЛЕКС(ABSOLUTE PARTICIPLE COMPLEX)

Незалежний дієприкметниковий комплекс також складається з двох частин: іменника у загальному відмінку (або займенника у називному відмінку) та дієприкметника. Особливість перекладу цього комплексу в тому, що він  утворює підрядне речення часу, причини, способу дії, умови і, як правило, відділяється комою.

The door being open, we                 – Оскільки двері були  відчинені,  ми  за-

looked in.                                            зирнули всередину.

         This duty completed, he                  – Коли  ця  робота  була   завершена,   він

had a three-month leave.                    отримав трьохмісячну відпустку.

SECTION I

Vocabulary And Reading Comprehension

1.   Read the following international words and give their Ukrainian equivalents:

substance, atmosphere, oxide, concentration, industrial, flora, sensitive, cardinal, technology,          chemical, introduce, neutralize, pesticide, utilize, production, commercial, imperative, classify, locate, condition, microorganism, natural, climate, base, dominate, determinate, application,         associate, potential.

2.   Define the meaning of the following words by word-building affixes and translate them into Ukrainian:     

  1. pollute, pollutant, pollution, polluting, polluted
  2. precipitate, precipitation, precipitating, precipitated
  3. significant, significantly, significance
  4. appear, appearance, appearing, appeared, disappear, disappearing
  5. store, storing, stored, storage, restore
  6. fertile, fertility, fertilizer
  7. substant, substance, substantivize
  8. introduce, introducing, introduced, introduction
  9. value, valued, valuable
  10. supply, supplying, supplied; supplement, supplementing
  11. relate, relation, relative, relatively
  12. avail, available, availability
  13. dispose, disposal, disposable, disposition
  14. base, basic, basically, basement, based
  15. adsorb, adsorbent, adsorbtion, adsorbtive
  16. vary, varying, varied, variant, variation
  17. apply, applying, applied, application
  18. attribute, attributed, attributing, attribution, attributive
  19. constitute, constituting, constituted, constitution, constituent
  20. potent, potential, potentiality, impotent

3.   Memorize the following words and expressionsnecessary to comprehend the text:

nitric oxide                               – окис азоту

sulphur oxide                           – окис сірки

raise                                          – піднімати

lower                                        – знижати

acid                                          – кислота

deplete                                      – виснажувати

species                                      – вид (біол.)

release                                                – скидати

livestock breeding complex      – комплекс  по  відгодівлі великої рогатої

   худоби

crop production                       – вирощування культур

ease                                          – легкість

property                                   – властивість

determine                                 – визначати

attempt                                     – прагнути

exist                                         – існувати

alkaline                                     – лужний

in turn                                                – в свою чергу

solubility                                  – розчинність

sufficient                                  – достатній

leach                                         – вимивати

hydrogen                                  – водень

magnezium                               – магній

limed                                         – підданий вапнуванню (грунт)

increase                                    – збільшувати

arise                                         – зростати

desire                                        – бажання

amount                                     – кількість

deterioration                            – псування, погіршення

terrestrial                                  – земний

ecologically sound                    – екологічно безпечний

4.   Read the text and carry out the following assignments:

a) find the paragraphs describing the sources of soil pollution;

b) find the paragraphs explaining dependance between the type of soil and pollution;

c) find the part of the text telling about the influence of domestic wastewaters on soil.

TEXT A

PROTECTION OF SOIL AGAINST POLLUTION

The most widespread substances polluting the soil from the atmosphere are nitric and sulphur oxides. They enter the soil together with precipitation, raise soil acidity and significantly lower fertility.

Higher concentrations of heavy metals in the soil around industrial enterprises deplete local flora, with the more sensitive species disappearing.

It is a difficult problem to restore the fertility of soil polluted by heavy metals. The main measure, and a cardinal solution to the problem, is to improve technology so that wastes are not released into the environment. Sometimes various chemical substances are introduced into the soil to neutralize the effect of soil pollutants and so on.

The soil may be polluted when fertilizers and pesticides are incorrectly used, and also by the wastes of livestock breeding complexes.

Until recent times, animal wastes were utilized as a valuable economic source of nutrients for crop production. Since World War II, commercial fertilizers have become the preferred source for supplementing nutrients in the soil because of thier relatively low cost, ease of handling, ease of storing, and ready availability. It is imperative that ways are found to utilize agricultural wastes to improve soils and provide added fertility for plant growth.

Soils vary greatly in their physical and chemical properties and are classified according to these properties.

An understanding of these properties provides information needed to determine the suitability of soils for land disposal of wastes. The engineer may find the advice of a soil scientist valuable when attempting to locate soils for waste disposal.

The chemical conditions existing in soils determine the reaction in soil, which may be acid, neutral or alkaline. This reaction in turn determines the availability or suitability of certain elements as well as the response of microorganisms and higher plants.

There is natural tendency for soils to become acid in humid climates where sufficient rainfall occurs to leach bases from the surface layers. Hydrogen and aluminium become dominant in the exchange complex and the soil is acid in reaction. When soil colloids are dominated by calcium and magnezium on their adsorbtive surfaces, the soil is neutral or alkaline in reaction. This condition occurs in limed soils or low rainfall areas.

The soil chemical properties determine the capacity of the soil to break down the complex waste materials added in varying amounts. These properties are also influenced by the application of wastes.

In the past several years, interest in land disposal of domestic wastewaters has increased. This increase arises from a widespread desire to conserve water by recycling. Also, it is thought that land disposal of wastewaters would minimize water pollution problems attributed to the presence of large amounts of chemical constituents that can cause singificant water quality deterioration in waterbased disposal systems. Additional interest in land disposal has been created by the possibility that nutrients present in domestic wastewaters, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, can be recycled to the land where they could then serve as fertilizer for terrestrial plants. Land application of domestic wastewaters is potentially an ecologically sound practice; however, a number of potential problems assosiated with such a practice could result in environmental degradation.

5.   Choose the one word which fits  each blank best:

1. ... polluting the soil from the atmosphere come with rain or snow (wastes, fertilizers, substances).

2. Vegetation around industrial enterprises is ... by heavy metals (restored, depleted, released).

3. Industry ... a great variety of pollutants (releases, improves, introduces).

4. Agriculture is one of the main soil ... (properties, conditions, polluters).

5. Soils ... greatly according to their properties (occur, determine, vary).

6.   Make a sentence from the following words:

Pollution, problems, the soil, one, global, is, of, main, ecological.

7.   Find paragraphs telling about pollution of soil by industry. Define the textual word-building chain        and tell how the process goes on.

8.   Translate into English using active vocabulary of the text:

Розвиток цивілізації неможливий без будівництва доріг. Часто їх доводиться прокладати через ліси, луки, поля та болота. Як правило, це завдає значної шкоди навколишньому середовищу, яке страждає не тільки від будівництва, але й під час експлуатації цих доріг. Саме через це екологи різних країн часто протестують проти будівництва доріг. Такі акції проводилися у Великобританії, Чехії, Німеччині, Голандії та інших країнах. Багато з них були успішними.

9.   Give determination to the following notions:

soil pollution , industrial soil pollutants, agricultural soil pollutants, soil chemical properties,          nutrients, wastewater land disposal.

10. Answer the following questions on the text:

1. What are the factors of industrial soil pollution ?

2. In what way are farmlands polluted ?

3. How can soils be classified ?

4. Do soil properties influence its capacity to react to pollution ?

5. Can domestic wastewater have a positive effect on soil ? In what way?

11. Suggest subtitles for each paragraph of the text. 

12. Express the main idea of the text in Ukrainian in the shortest possible way and write down yourannotation.

13. Render the text according to Denotative graph 6 given below.

 

Denotatire  graph  6.

 

 

 

 

14.Add your own information about:

1. other polluters besides industry and agriculture and measures to neutralize their negative effect on soil;

2. measures to protect soil from fertilizers and pesticides;

3. dependence between soil properties and its reaction to wastes.

SECTION II

Structure and Written Expression

  1. 1.     Translate the sentences with Participle Complexes. Comment on their forms and structure:
  2. The taxi could be seen waiting outside.
  3. His face clouded when he heard his name spoken.
  4. The main part of the territory are plains , mountains being only in the south.
  5. This being understood, the conference was over.
  6. The next morning , it being Sunday, they all went  to the  lake.
  7. There being no new ideas , the engineers finished the consultation.
  8. At that moment footsteps were heard coming across the hall.
  9. One evening he was seen going into this house, but was never seen coming out of t.
  10. She saw Abraham coming up  the street carring a blue umbrella.
  11. And still she sat there, her hands lying in front of her.

2.   Translate into English using Participle Complexes:

  1. Важкі метали можна знайти в грунті як такі, що забруднюють його.
  2. Промислові райони вважаються забрудненими.
  3. Оскільки хімічні властивості грунту різні, він може бути кислим, нейтральним або лужним.
  4. Зливні води інколи вважають удобрюючими грунт.
  5. Відомо, що окиси азоту та сірки є такими, що забруднюють грунт.

3.   Choose the sentence with the Subjective Participle Complex:

  1. Having polluted the soil greatly , man must work hard to restore it.
  2. When natural forests are cut down, water formerly absorbed and stored in the porous forestsoil runs off uncontrolled, downhill.
  3. The lands spoiled by industry are seen being recultivated throughout the world.

4.   Make up questions to have the following answers:

  1. Nitric and sulfur oxides are found polluting the soil from the atmosphere.
  2. Scietists found out soil fertility lowering significantly because of acid rains.
  3. Local flora is seen depleted through high concentration of heavy metals.
  4. To protect the land industrial wastes must not be found released into the environment.
  5. Some chemical substances are found neutralizing pollutants.
  6. Throughout the centuries animal wastes were considered fertilizing the farmlands .
  7. Nowadays we have chemical fertilizers nourishing the soils.
  8. In the recent time we see interest in land disposal of domestic wastewaters increased.
  9. Industry and agriculture want wastewaters recycled.
  10. Ecology considers wastewaters land disposal justified.
SECTION III

Listening Comprehension

  1. 1.       Listen to the text and be ready to choose the best answers for the following questions:
  2. What must ploughland be protected against ?
  3. What is the part of ploughland in areas of urban development ?
  4. Why does the law strictly protect ploughland ?

        

 

TEXT B

RATIONAL USE OF LAND RESOURCES

The rational use of land resources includes not only the coservation measures but also actual use of the land. It is very important that ploughland be protected against inefficient use for civil and industrial construction, against dumping with refuse, and urban and village dumps. Nearly half of the new land assigned for urban development, airports, roads, etc,  is assigned at the expence of ploughed land and pastures.

The World Strategy for Conservation of Nature published in 1980 points out that every year as much as 3 000 square kilometres of agricultural land are involved in construction work. In the last ten years Japan lost 7,3 per cent of its agricultural land as a result of road and residential construction, the Netherlands – 4,3 per cent, Norway – 1,5 per cent.

If  land continues to be degraded at the current rate a third of ploughland will be lost or degraded in 20 years. That is why the law srtictly protects ploughland from incorrect use.

2.   Render the text either in English or Ukrainian.

  1. 3.       Do you know that . . .

–       recultivation of land includes setting up of recreational parks, swimming pools, beaches and like;

–       salinization of soil can be overcome with the help of biochemical and metallurgical enterprises wastes;

–       the use of nuclear weapons would erode the soil;

–       Geya was the name of old Greek goddess of Earth. It is still preserved in the names of scinces: geology, geography, geophysics and others;

–       about one fourth of the Netherlands is below the sea level nevertheless it is used for farming.

 

 

  1. 4.     Role plays:

Student A

–  Being a member of Youth Ecological Club you took part in the intetrnational tour “For Mother Earth”. Tell about the aim and actions of the tour. 

Student B

–  Ask your friend, a member of Youth Ecological Club, about his activity during the international tour “ For Mother Earth “.

5.   Organize a round-table discussion on the ways of soil pollution.

6.   Prepare a speech on soil protection at a conference. Write down an English annotation to be published in the “Review of the Conference on Soil Protection“.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LESSON EIGHT

GRAMMAR

Герундiй (the Gerund)

Герундiй – це неособова форма  дієслова iз  закiнченням – ing, що має властивостi дієслова й іменника.  Як i інфiнiтив, герундiй н а з и в а є  дiю reading – читання, listening – слухання.

В українськiй мoвi немає форми, яка вiдповiдала б герундiю.

ДІЄСЛІВНІ  ВЛАСТИВОСТІ ГЕРУНДІЯ

Герундiй має такi дієслiвні властивостi:

а) Герундiй перехiдних дiєслiв вживається з прямим додатком:

І  like reading books.                        Я люблю читати книжки.

6) Герундiй може мати означення, виражене прислiвником:

They continued listening attentively. Вoни продовжували уважно слухати.

в) Герундiй має неозначену й перфектну форми, вживається в активному i пасивному стaні. За формою герундiй  збiгається з вiдповiдними формами Present Participle.

 

 

Active

Passive

Indefinite

writing

being written

Perfect

having written

having been written

 

Перфектна форма герундія  (Perfect Gerund)  виражає  дiю, що передує дiї вираженiй дiєсловом-присудком речення.

Thank you for having helped me.     Дякую, що допомогли менi.

Неозначена форма герундiя (1ndefinite Gerund) вживається:

а) для вираження дiї одночасної з дiєю, вираженою дiєсловом-присудком речення:

Не sat without turning his head.       Biн сидiв, не обертаючись.                         

б) для вираження дii безвiдносно до якогось певного часу:

Seeing is believing.                           Бачити – значить вiрити.

в) пiсля дiєлiв to intend – мати намiр, to suggest – пpoпoнувати, to insist –наполягати та деяких iнших Indefinite  Gerund виражає м а й б у т н ю дiю по вiдношенню до дiї, вираженої дiєсловом-присудком:

Не had intended writing  him.          Biн мав намiр написати йому.                                                

г) для вираження дiї, що передує дiї, вираженiй  дiєсловом-присудком, зокрема пiсля дiєлiв to thank – дякувати; to forget – забувати; to remember –пам'ятати, пригадувати; to excuse – пробачати; to apologize – просити пробачення та iн., а також пiсля прийменникiв on i after.

Thank you for helping me.                Дякую, що допомогли мeнi.

Герундiй вживається в активному станi, якщо  iменник або займенник, до якого вiн вiдноситься, позначає суб'єкт дiї вираженої герундiєм:

Магу could not help laughing.                  Mepi не могла не засмiятися.

Герундiй вживається в пасивному станi, якщо iменник  або займенник, до якого вiн вiдноситься, позначає об'єкт  вираженої ним дiї.

But he has по right to come              Aле він не  має права прийти,

without being invited.                       якщо його не запросили.   

Дiя, виражена герундiєм, завжди вiдноситься до якоїсь  особи чи предмета, навiть якщо вони не названi у реченнi.

ІМЕННИКОВІ  ВЛАСТИВОСТІ ГЕРУНДІЯ

Герундiй у реченнi виконує тaкi властивi іменнику синтаксичнi функції:

а) пiдмета:

Smoking is harmful.                         Палити – шкiдливо.

б) предикатива:

His hobby is collecting stamps.                   Його улюблене заняття – колекцiонувати

поштовi марки.

 

в) додатка (прямого і прийменникового):

Не likes talking to mе.                      Biн любить розмовляти зi мною.

Kpiм того, герундiй має ще тaкi іменникові властивостi:

а) перед герундiєм може вживатися прийменник, що вiдноситься до нього:

Nobody thought of going to bed.      Hixтo й не думав лягати спати.

б) перед герундiєм, як i перед іменником, може вживатися присвiйний займенник або іменник у присвiйному  вiдмінку:

Don't fear my forgetting her.            Не бiйтесь, що я забуду її.

Функції герундія в реченні

Підмет

Seeing and believing are different things.

Побачити і повірити - різні речі.

Частина дієслівного присудка

Begin reading the text, please.

Починайте читати текст, будь-ласка.

Частина складеного  іменного присудка

Some people say that seeing is believing.

Деякі люди говорять, що побачити означає повірити.

Прямий додаток

I remember telling him about the meeting.

Я пам’ятаю, що сказав йому про збори.

Прийменниковий додаток

She thanked  him for having helped her.

Вона подякувала йому за те, що він їй допоміг.

Означення

They have  a plan for solving these problems.

Вони мають план вирішення цих завдань.

Обставина

He left the room without saying a word.

Він вийшов з кімнати, не сказавши й слова.

ПЕРЕКЛАД ГЕРУНДІЯ УКРАЇНСЬКОЮ МОВОЮ

На українську мову герундiй перекладається:

а) неозначеною формою дiеслова (інфiнiтивом):

I thought of coming to see you.                  Я думала провідати вас.

б) іменником:

He hаs а lot  of medals for saving    У нього є багато медалей за

people's lives.                                   врятування життя людей.

 

 

в) дiєприслiвником:

And they continued their work                   І вони продовжували працювати,

without looking up.                          не розгинаючись.

г) предикативною формою дiєслова (присудком) підрядного речення:

She was trying to арproach              Вона намагалася наблизитися

without his seeing her.                      так, щоб вiн не помітив її.

Excuse mу leaving you..                    Пробачте, що я залишив  вас.

КОМПЛЕКСИ З ГЕРУНДІЄМ (COMPLEXES WITH THE GERUND)

Герундiй у реченнi може вiдноситись до підмета або д о д а т к а. Так, у реченнi Не stopped working  and smiled.– Biн  припинив роботу і усміхнувся. – дія, виражена  герундiєм (working), вiдноситься до пiдмета (вiн працював, а потiм припинив роботу).

У реченнi I don't forgive you for being late for dinner. –  Я не прощаю вам того, що ви запізнилися на oбiд. – герундій  вiдноситься до додатка.

Але герундiй може також вiдноситися до iменника або  займенника, що не є пiдметом чи додатком речення. Цей  iменник чи займенник (суб’єкт герундiя) завжди стоїть  п е р е д  герундiєм   i позначає особу або предмет, що виконує дiю або зазнає дії, вираженої герундiєм. Сполучення  герундiя з таким iменником або займенником становить  герундiальний комплекс:

Don't  fear my forgetting  Aunt Alice.   Не бiйтесь, що я забуду  тітку Алісу.

Перша частина герундiального комплексу – iменник  у присвiйному чи загальному вiдмiнку  або присвiйний займенник. Друга частина – герундiй, що виражає дiю, яку виконує або якої зазнає  особа чи предмет, позначений першою частиною комплексу:

They were afraid of my  finding out Вони боялись, що я взнаю правду.

the truth.

Якщо iменник, до якого вiдноситься герундiй, не вживається в присвійному вiдмiнку , він ставиться  перед герундiєм у загальному вiдмінку, але при замiнi його  займенником вживається, як правило, присвiйний займенник:

I hadn't much hope of  his plan                 У мене було мало надії на те, що його           

working.                                                    план  спрацює.                                  

Іменник у загальному вiдмiнку може бути першою частиною герундiального комплексу, навiть якщо  цей іменник взагалi може вживатися в присвійному вiдмiнку. Інодi першою частиною герундiального комплексу може бути також особовий займенник в об'єктному  вiдмiнку:

I remember his sister taking part       Пам'ятаю, що його сестра                  

in the concert.                                   брала участь у концертi. 

Герундiальний комплекс становить один складний член речення i в реченнi може бути:

а) пiдметом:

Your coming here is very desirable.  Ваш приїзд сюди дуже бажаний.

б)додатком (безприйменниковим i прийменниковим):

Forgive mу saying it.                        Простiть, що я сказала це.

в) означенням:

I don't  know the reason of               Я не знаю причини вашого вiд'їзду.

your leaving.

г) обставиною:

I entered the room without his                    Я увiйшла до кiмнати так,  щоб  вiн i не

seeing it.                                           побачив цього.

SECTION I

Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension

1. Read the following international words and give their Ukrainian equivalents:

ecology, problem, social, economic, progress, technology, energy, ecosystem, anthropogenic, biosphere, component, atmosphere, climate, temperature, radiation, ecological problem, physiochemical, method, automobile.

2.   Define the meaning of the following words  by word-building affixes:

  1. pollute, pollution, pollutant, polluted ,  unpolluted;
  2. ecology, ecological, ecologist,  unecological;
  3. society, social, sociology, unsocial, unsociable;
  4. environ, environment, environmental, environmentalist, environmentally;
  5. technology, technological, technologist;
  6. generate, generation, regenerating, self-regenerating, degeneration;
  7. sphere, biosphere, atmosphere, atmospheric;
  8. norm, normal,  normalize, enormous, anenormous;
  9. pure, purity, purify,  purification, purificative, purifying;
  10.  neutral, neutralisation, neutralist, neutralizer, neutrality;
  11.  prove, improve,  improvement, improver, improved, improvable;
  12.  regret, regretful, regrettable;
  13.  industry, industrial, industrialist, industrialization;
  14.  economy, economic, economist, economizer, economically;
  15.  necessary, necessarily, necessitate, unnecessary, necessity;
  16.  possible, possibility, impossibility, possibly, imposible;
  17.  utilize, utilization, utilized, utility, utilityman;
  18.  radiate, radiation, radiator, radioactive, irradiation.

3.   Memorise the following words and expressions necessary to comprehend the text:

conservation                             – збереженя

harmful                                    – шкідливий

substance                                 – речовина

exceed                                      – перевищувати

permissible                               – допустимий

due                                           – завдяки

regard                                       – увага, турбота

influence                                   – вплив

environment                             – навколишнє середовище

condition                                  – умова     

waste                                        – відходи, втрати, збитки

equipment                                – знаряддя

rough                                        – грубий

raw materials                                     – сировина

trap                                          – ловити, поглинати

recuperation                             – відновлення

lead                                          – свинець

mercury                                    – ртуть

refinement                                – очистка

exclude                                              – виключати

vapour                                               – пара

discharge                                  – викидати, скидати, розвантажувати

soot                                          – сажа, кіптява

exhaust                                              – випуск, вихлоп

fume                                         – випаровування

eliminate                                   – зменшувати, усувати

conсern                                     – турбота

advantage                                 – перевага

establish                                   – встановлювати

estate                                        – господарство, нерухомість

odour                                       – аромат, пахощі

absorb                                      – вбирати, поглинати

contaminate                              – забруднювати

4.   Read the text and carry out the following assignments:

1.   find the sentences describing purification plant;

2.   find the paragraph telling about the most promising way of solving the problem of clean air;

3.   choose the best Ukrainian title expressing the main idea of the text:

Боротьба за чистоту повітря.

        Боротьба з забрудненням атмосфери.

4.   suggest  your own title to the text.

 

 

TEXT A

FIGHTIHG ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

Article 12 of the Law of the Conservation of  Nature reads: "The  content of harmful substances in emissions into the atmosphere, water, and soil shall not exceed maximum permissible concentrations established with due regard  t o  the economic increases and hygienic standards."

The limits were determined by a study of the influence of atmospheric pollutants on the environment  and the conditions of  life and health of the population.

Industrial wastes,  heating systems are of greater concern in certain cities, areas and individual factories. In such cases, purification plants may be built with different methods of purification  (mechanical, chemical, electric and complex).  The degree of purification obtained is extremely varied as it depends on the physiochemical properties of the pollutant and the efficiency of  the method and equipment. There are rough purification methods which are 70 to  85 per cent effective, medium purification – 95 to 98 per cent and  fine purification – over 99 percent. The purification of industrial  wastes not only protects the air from pollution but also saves raw  materials and provides the enterprise with additional profit. Trapping and recuperation of usefu1 products in smoke emissions have not  only sanitary but also national economic importance.

However, a purification plant is not enough in itself. The most  promising way to solve the problem of clean air is to improve technology: reduce emissions into the atmosphere and make maximum use of  waste. It is cheaper and easier to find a way of eliminating the possibility of waste formation than to build a purification plant which  may cost more than the production technology itself. For example, it  is very difficult and very costly to purify every hour hundreds of thousands of cubic metres of air containing compounds of  lead and mercury. The process requires a purification plant costing more than the  enterprise itself. But on the other hand, it is quite possible to design a process whereby the refinement  of lead would exclude the possibility of vapour and aerosols being freely discharged into the atmosphere and causing giant streams of air and surrounding territory  to be polluted by lead.

    A similar situation exists with motor transportation: it is not  enough to reduce the noise and soot in exhaust fumes, the design of  the  engine must be improved, the autombile modernized. Considerable improvements should be introduced into motor transportations operation to reduce air pollution by exhaust fumes and eventually eliminate it completely.The following measures are important to make exhaust fumes less toxic:

1. To introduce improved carburators, reducing emission of toxic substances.

2. A particularly interesting method to reduce atmospheric pollution would be to switch cars to gaseous fuel (liquefied gas) .

3. By adding agents to the fuel  it  is possible to  change the course of oxidation of  hydrocarbons,  to reduce the informations of  some toxic components – carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, soot and others.

4. Neutralization of exhaust gases by installing neutralizers.Of all the devices proposed, the best known are flame and catalytic neutralizers.

5. In addition to improving existing automobile engine, a search is being conducted in Ukraine and abroad for fundamentally different power units.

The most promising seems to be the electric automobiles.

The major advantages of the electric automobile are quiet running and absence of exhaust fumes, i.e., protection of the environment.

Improvement in city planning is of great importance in keeping the air clean. Factories are now usually built beyond city  limits.Special zones must be established between housing estates and industrial enterprises protecting the population from smoke, gases, dust, noise and unpleasant odours.

Plant life cleans the air in cities of  harmful components.Trees play the role of biological filters absorbing gas contaminants from the air while particles of dust settle on their leaves and branches.

5. Translate into English  the following words and expresions:

полiпшення, автомобiльний двигун, бiологiчний фiльтр, випуск (вихлоп), електромобiль, менш токсичний, ступiнь очищення, промисловi вiдходи, атмосфера, подiбна ситуацiя, чисте повiтря, навколишнє середовище, шкiдливий, забруднення свинцем, захист, основнi переваги.

6.   Choose the word  which fits each blank  best.

  1. Purification plant may be built with different … of purification (concern, method, atitude).
  2. The  purification  of industrial  wastes protects the air from pollution, saves raw materials and provides … with additional profit (enterprise, shop, hotel).
  3. The most promising way to solve the problem of … air is to improve technology (clean, fresh, dirty).   
  4. Ecology is ... common for all mankind ( problem, question, object).
  5. A ... interesting method to redyce atmospheric pollution would be to switch cars to gaseous fuel (very, guite, particularly)
  6. Improvement in city planning is of great ... in  keeping the air clean (importance, value).
  7. Trees play the role of biological filters ... gas contaminants from the air (wasting, reducing, absorbing).

7.   Write down textual word-building chains (TWBC) with root "pollut", "atmosphere". State the microtopic of the paragraphs taking into account that TWBC are theme descriptors.

8.   Answer the following questiones on the text:

  1. What  is said in the Law on the conservation of  Nature?
  2. Are industrial wastes of greater concern in certain cities, areas and factories?
  3. The degree of purification of industrial wastes depends on the physicochemical properties of the pollutant, doesnt it?
  4. What does the purification of industrial waste protect the air from?
  5. Why is it necessary to trap and recuperate useful products in smoke emisions?
  6. A purification plant is not enough for solving the problem of  clean air, is it?
  7. What is the most promising way to solve the problem of clean air?
  8. Why should considerable improvement be introduced into motor transportation?
  9. What measures should be taken  to make exhaust fumes less toxic?
  10. What are the major advantages of the electric  automobiles?
  11. Is improvement in city planning of great  importance in keeping the air clean?
  12. Are the  factories  built beyond city  limits or in the centre of a city?
  13. What is the role of trees in protection air of harmful components?

9.   Suggest subtitle for eash paragraph of the text.

10. Write down the annotation of the text (either in English or in Ukrainian.)

11. Using Denotative graph 7 render the text.

 

SECTION II

Structure and Written Expression

1.   Write out of the text the sentences with  gerund, comment on their forms and functions. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

2.   Translate into English.

  1. Додаючи реактиви (хiмiчнi речовини) в паливо   можна змiнити окислення вуглеводню.
  2. Вам подобається кататися на лодцi?
  3. Розвязання проблеми забруднення навколишнього середовища є важли­вим завданням.
  4. Велику роль в забрудненнi водних ресурсiв  вiдiграють стiчнi води великих i малих мiст.
  5. Повiтря в багатьох великих мiстах потребує очистки.

3.   Make up your own sentences with gerund.

SECTION III

Listening Comprehension

  1. 1.       Listen to the tape-recorded text below and be ready to choose the best answer for the following guestions.
  2. What problem is ecological problem closely linked with?
  3. What may cause catastrophic results?
  4. Has the accumulation of carbon dioxide in  atmosphere increased by 20 percent?
  5. What do the calculations of researchers   indicate?
  6. How many people are born with hereditary defects?

TEXT B

ECOLOGY IS  A PRIORITY

The ecological problem, which is also very much a social one, is one of the pressing problems of our days. It is closely linked, through cause and effect relations, to the problems of economic growth, progress in science and technology, natural resources, energy and food supplies. ln many cases the environmental problem has become a dominant one in relation to many others.

The pollution of the enviromment, the destruction of ecosystems, the destruction of many species of plants and  animals have now reached threatening proportions.An increasing influence on nature and the application of new technological processes (whose consequences are increasingly dangerous for the environment) may cause catastrophic results. Negative anthropogenic influences threaten to disrupt nature's basic cycles and to undermine the self-regenerating capacities of the biosphere and of its individual components.

This is illustrated by the following data. By comparison with the beginning of the twentieth century the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, as well as of aerosols, has increased globally by 20 per cent . As a result of  the formation of a  layer of carbon dioxide around the  Earth which encloses it 1ike a glass cover the threat  of  unfavourable changes in climate has arisen that may transform our blue planet into anenormous greenhouse during the next decades, with possibly catastrophic effects.Those include changes in it's energy balance and a gradual increase in temperature that will transform fertile regions into arid ones, raise the level of water in the oceans (through the melting of polar and drifting ice) and produce a flooding of great  numbers of coastal lands and cities.

These impede the vital activities and reproductive functions of individuals and cause their genetic degeneration. Calculations of researchers indicate that increases in natural background radiation by only 10 rads may lead to the birth of 6 million hereditary defective persons in each generation. Already now, according to U NO experts 10.5 per cent of people are born  with hereditary( genetic) defects. Data concerning deaths from cancer  publisbed by the National Cancer I nstitute of the US indicate  that 60 per cent or more of  the cases   are caused by various cancer producing  factors  i n  the environment.

  1. 2.     Translate these expressions into Ukrainian.

ecological

social

pressing

environmental

global

dominant

scientific

PROBLEM

3.   Match the words.

illustrate                                   заважати, ставати на перешкодi

pollution of the environment    вода

capacity                                    засушливi регiони

economic growth                      забруднення навколишнього середовища

generation                                пояснювати, iлюструвати

gradual increase                       виродження

fertile regions                                     об’єм, мiсткiсть

water                                        економiчний рiст

degeneration                             поступове зростання

arid regions                              родючi регiони

4.   Using examples given below form new words by  means of the suffix  -ing.Translate the words into Ukrainian. e.g.  threaten – threatening.

increase, regenerate, illustrate, begin, accumulate, flood, concern, keep, double, produce, improve.

5.   Write down the annotation of the text.

6.   Render the text either in English or in Ukrainian.

7.   Do you know that:

                                       A Gulp of Fresh Air.

Regrettably, in the 20th century man can not neglect the oxygen balance of the atmosphere.The industry of the United States, for instance, annually consumes
40 per cent more oxygen than is generated by the country's surface.In other words, the United States uses the oxygen turned out by the territories of  Mexico and composition of the atmosphere over a huge area far beyond  its own borders.

Experience shows that environrnental pollution also leads to immense economic losses. For example the doubling of the air pollution level shortens the life of industrial equipment by 50 per cent. Wheat harvests in the zone of operation of the nonferrous metal industry enterprises with an inadequetely effective system of  gas purification are 40-50 per cent lower than outside the zone.The total annual economic losses of the most developed countries resulting from environmental pollution run into tens of billions of dollars. At the same time, it is estimated that the saving  obtained by the renewal of the pollution damage, as a rule, exceeds the expenditures necessary for its prevention.

8.   Organize discussion on nature-protection   problems

9.   Make a speech on nature protections:

"What should we do to fight atmospheric pollution?

 

 

 

 

 

LESSON  NINE

GRAMMAR

Модальні Дієслова (Modal Verbs)

В англiйськiй мoвi є група дієслів (can, may, must, ought, shall, should, will, would, need, dare), які називаються модальними. Цi дiєслова не мають ycix основних форм, властивих іншим дієсловам, і тому вони ще називаються недостатніми (Defective Verbs).

Модальнi дiєслова не виражають дiї або стану, а лише  можливість, необхідність, бажаність, імовiрнiсть, сумнiв, дозвіл, заборону, здатнiсть  виконання  дiї, позначеної   інфiнiтивом.

У модальному значенні  вживаються також дієслова to have і to be.              Модальнi дієслова мають ряд особливостей:

1. Модальнi дієслова не мають форм інфінітива, дієприкметника i герундія, а тому не мають складних  часових  форм – майбутнього часу, тривалих  і перфектних  часів.

2. Пiсля модальних дієслів   інфінітив  вживається  без  частки  to.

Виняток становлять дiєслова tо bе i tо have у модальному значенні та дієслово ought, після яких  інфінітив вживається з часткою to, а також дієслова need і dare, після яких інфінітив може вживатися з часткою to і без неї.

3. У третій особі однини теперішнього часу модальні дієслова не мають закінчення -(e)s:

Hе may come tomorrow.                  Можливо,  він прийде завтра

4. Питальна й заперечна форми теперішнього і минулого часу модальних дiєслів утворюються  без  допомiжного  дієслова  to do.

У питальній формі  модальні  дієслова  ставляться  перед пiдметом:

May І come in?                       Можна  ввійти?

У заперечній формі  після  модальних  дієслiв вживається заперечна частка not:

You should not do it.              Вам не слід цього робити.                      

Can у теперішньому  чaci пишеться  разом  з  часткою  not

Не cannot dance.                    Biн  не  вміє  танцювати.

ДІЄСЛОВО CAN

Дієслово can має дві форми :

Теперішній  час  can   і минулий час  could

I can swim.                             Я вмію плавати.

Дієслово can виражає  ф і з и ч н у  або  р о з у м о в у  здатність, уміння або можливість   виконати дію в теперішньому (can) або минулому (could) чaci:

Не can lift this weight.           Biн може пiдняти цю вагу.

Пiсля форми could у цих значеннях може вживатися перфектний інфінітив, який вказує  на те, що дія, яка могла вiдбутися, не відбулася:

You could have bought this    Ти міг купити цю книжку, вона             

book; it was on sale.               була в продажу (але не купив).

Дієслово саn не має майбутнього часу. Замість сan вживається сполучення  to be able – бути спроможним; інфінiтив пiсля нього вживається з часткою to. Вираз to be able іноді  вживається також відносно теперішнього і минулого часу:

Perhaps this young man                   Можливо, цей молодий

will be able to help you.                   чоловік зможе допомогти вам.

Дiєслово can  вживаєеться для вираження  д о з в о л у   або   з а б о р о н и

(в заперечній формі)

Уоu саn use dictionaries.                 Можете користуватися словником.

Форма could у значенні  дозволу вживається  лише в питальних  реченнях  для вираження  ввічливого прохання:

Could І take your pen?           Можна мені взяти вашу ручку?

      Дiєслово can вживається  для вираження с у м н і в у,  здивування, невіри. У цих значеннях  воно  вживається  лише в питальних і  заперечних речениях, але з  різними формами  інфінітива.

ДІЄСЛОВО  MAY

Дієслово may має  двi форми: теперішнiй час may  і минулий час might.

Але в значенні минулого часу дійсного способу форма might вживається дуже рідко, головним чином у пiдрядних реченнях за правилом послідовності часів:

Не asked the doctor if he                  Він запитав лікаря чи  йому можна

might use his telephone.          скористатися його телефоном.

Дієслово may найчастіше виражає п р и п у щ е н н я  з  вiдтiнком сумнiву, невпевненостi. У цьому значенні may вживається у стверджувальних i заперечних реченнях з yciмa формами інфінiтива. Indefinite Infinitive з дiєсловом may звичайно виражає дію, що стосується майбутнього часу:

She may соmе back.                Може,  вона повернеться.   

Сполучення may з Continuous Infinitive виражає припущення, що дія відбувається в  момент мовлення:

Не may be waiting for  you.    Можливо, вiн чекає на вас.

 Дієслово may,  вживається  для  вираження  м о ж л и в о с т i   виконати дію, що залежить вiд певних обставин. У цьому значенні may вживається лише у стверджувальних реченнях з неозначеним  інфiнітивом:

You may gо there by train.      Ви можете поїхати туди поїздом.

<h7></h7>Перфектний інфінiтив після might вказує на те, що дія, яка могла б вiдбутися, не відбулася:

І might have stayed at home.   Я міг би залишитися вдома.

Дієслово may з неозначеним інфінiтивом вживається для вираження
д о з в о л у:

You may go – with whom       Можеш  іти з ким хочеш.

уоu will.

Форма might вживається в питальних реченнях для вираження ввічливого прохання:

Might І speak a word tо you? Дозвольте звернутися до вас.

Заперечна форма may not означає  з а б о р о н у, але вона piдкo вживається. У таких випадках звичайно вживається заперечна форма дієслова must (іноді can):

Mау we use dictionaries?     – Можна користуватися словниками?

– No, you mustn't.                            – Ні.

Дозвіл або заборону можна виразити також за допомогою словосполучень to be allowed i to be permitted, які вживаються замість may стосовно дiї у минулому або майбутньому  чaci:

We were allowed to use                    Нам дозволяли користуватися                                                  

dictionaries.                            словниками.

Для вираження докору, несхвалення, о с у д у  звичайно вживається лише форма might:

You might be more attentive.   Tи міг би бути уважнішим.

Perfect Infinitive після форми might виражає докір з приводу того, що дiя не відбулася в минулому.

ДІЄСЛОВО   MUST

Дієслово must має лише одну форму. Дія, виражена інфiнітивом у сполученні з must, може стосуватися теперішнього i майбутнього часу:

Не must be at school now.      Зараз він мусить бути в школі.

Дієслово must виражае о б о в' я з о к,  н е о б х і д н i с т ь. У цьому значенні must  вживається у стверджувальних i питальних реченнях лише з неозначеним інфінитивом:

То catch the train І must                  Щоб потрапити на поїзд,

get ар at six.                           я мушу встати о 6 годині.

Must we come to school          Чи треба нам приходити

tomorrow?                              в школу завтра?

У заперечних реченнях must виражає з а б о р о н у. У цьому значенні must вживається лише з  неозначеним інфінітивом:

You must not talk aloud          У читальному залi не дозволяється

in thе reading-hall.                 голосно розмовляти.

Дієслово must вживається для вираження  н а к а з у   і   п о р а д и. У цих значеннях воно вживається у стверджувальних і заперечних реченнях з неозначеним інфінітивом:

Tomorrow you must come       Завтра ви повинні прийти до школи о           

to school at eight.                             восьмій годині.

You must not read this            Не треба читати цю книжку.

book. It іs not interesting.        Вона нецiкава.

Дієслово must вживається для вираження п р и п у щ е н н я,  що межує з упевненістю. У ньому значенні  must вживається лише в стверджувальних реченнях, але з yciмa формами інфінітива.

Сполучення must з Continuous Infinitive виражає припущення, що дія відбувається в момент мовлення або протягом теперiшнього neрioдy часу:

They must be surrounding      Вони, напевно, оточують будинок.

the house.

Якщо дієслово не вживається у формах Continuous, то припущення стосовно теперішнього часу виражається сполученням must з неозначеним інфiнiтивом:

He must be eighty years old.   Йому, напевно, вісімдесят poкiв.

Сполучення must з Perfect Infinitive виражає припущення, що дія вiдбулася в минулому:

She must have caught cold.     Вона, напевно, застудилася.

ДІЄСЛОВА SHOULD і OUGHT

Дiєслова should і ought майже не різняться за значенням. Кожне з них має лише одну форму. Should вживається з інфiнiтивом без частки to. Після ought інфiнітив вживається з часткою to.

Дієслова should i ought виражають м о р а л ь н и й о б о в' я з о к  (з точки зору того, хто говорить), п о р а д у,  р е к о м е н д а ц і ю. У цих значеннях should i ought вживаються з різними формами інфінiтива.

Сполучення should i ought з Indefinite Infinitive виражають дію стосовно тенерішнього або майбутнього часу:

You ought to go to the            Вам cлід бiльше ходити  в кіно.

movies mоrе.

Continuous Infinitive з should/ought виражає дiю стосовно теперiшнього часу, інодi стосовно моменту мовлення.

Уоu oughtn't to be working    Вам не треба було б працювати

for those people.                     у тих людей.

Сполучення Perfect Infinitive з дiєловами should/ought у стверджувальній формі означає, що дія, бажана на думку того, хто говорить, не вiдбулася.

Заперечна<h7 align=right> форма should /ought у сполученнi з Perfect Infinitive виражає дію, що відбулася як небажана з точки зору того, хто говорить:

You should have sent her        Вам слід було послати її  до школи.

tо school.

Дієслова should і ought інод  вживаються для вираження припущення з відтінком упевненості .  Проте частіше в цьому значеннi  вживається дієслово must:

Не ought to be able to do       Biн, мабуть, зможе щось зробити.
something.

You ought to be а happy wife.          Ви, певно, щаслива дружина.

Дієслово should вживається в риторичних запитаннях з питальним словом why для вираження  подиву, сильного здивування, обурення:

Why should І feel guilty           Чому я маю почувати себе винним

about it?                                 у цьому?

МОДАЛЬНЕ ДІЄСЛОВО TO HAVE

Дієслово to have, вжите як модальне, виражає необхідність чи обов'язковість дiї, зумовленої обставинами.

На вiдмiну від інших модальних дієслiв, дієслово to have має форми інфiнiтива, дієприкметника і герундія і може вживатися в часових формах, яких не мають інші  модальні  дієслова, зокрема в майбутньому чaci. 3 мода­льним дієсловом  to have вживається лише Indefinite  Infinitive з часткою to:

I have to get uр the next                   Завтра я маю  встати о cьомій годині.

morning at seven.

Питальна й заперечна форми модального дієлова to have y Present Іndefinite і Past Indefinite утворюються з допомiжним дієсловом to do:

Do we have to sleep with                  Ми мусимо спати з ним тут?

him in here?

В усному мовленні вираз to have got також вживаеться в модальному значенні i виражає  н е о б х i д н і с т ь  чи  о б о в' я з о к, зумовленi обставинами:

I've got to get uр early.          Мені треба встати рано.

Питальна й заперечна форми утворюються, як відповіднi форми Present Perfect: 

Have you got to get uр early?

I haven't got to get uр early.

Вираз to have got у модальному значенні практично вживаєтьcя лише в теперішньому чaci.

МОДАЛЬНЕ ДIЄСЛОВО TO BE

Дієслово to be як модальне вживається лише в двох часах: Present Indefinite i Past Indefinite.

Не is to come at five.               Biн має прийти о 5 годині.

Не was to come at five.           Biн мав прийти о 5 годині.

3 модальним дiєсловом to be в Present Indefinite вживається лише Indefinite Infinitive.

Пiсля to be в Past Indefinite вживається також Perfect Infinitive, який вказує на те, що виражена ним дія не відбулася:

Не was to have соmе at five.   Biн мав прийти о 5 годинi (але не

прийшов).

Дієлово to be, вжите як модальне, виражає обов'язок, що випливає з попередньої домовленості, плану, розкладу, графіка і т. п.:

We were to work two hours     Ми мали працювати дві години       

every morning.                        кожного ранку.

Модальне дієслово to be вживається для вираження наказу  або інструкції:

Уоu аrе to go to sleep.            Лягайте спати.

Модальне дiєслово to be, вжите з інфінітивом у пасивному стані, виражає можливість:

Не was not to be found.                   Його не можна було знайти.

МОДАЛЬНЕ ДІЄСЛОВО SHALL

Модальне дієслово shall, вжите з Indefinite Infinitive основного дієслова, означає  дію стосовно майбутнього часу.

У стверджувальних і заперечних реченнях модальне дієслово shall вживається у другій i третiй особах для вираження наказу, попередження, погрози, обіцянки, перестороги:

You shall go into the               Tи підеш в їдальню першою. (наказ)

diningroom first.

У питальних реченнях модальне дієслово shall вживається у першiй і третій особах при звертаннi до  співрозмовника з метою дістати від нього розпорядже ння, вказівку:

Shall I come to see уоu there? Прийти до вас туди?

МОДАЛЬНІ ДІЄСЛОВА WILL І WOULD

Подiбно до shall і should дієслова will і would вживаються не тільки як допоміжні для утворення майбутнього часу й умовного способу, а й як модальні.

Модальні дієслова will і would вживаються у першій особі в стверджувальних і заперечних реченнях для вираження волi, бажання, намipy.

Як модальне дієслово will вживається стосовно майбутнього i теперіш­нього часу:

We will help you.                    Ми допоможемо вам (охоче).

Would у цьому значенні вживається здебільшого в підрядних додаткових реченнях, де дієслово-присудок вжито у минулому чaci:

І said that we would help you.          Я сказав, що ми (охоче)<h7> допоможемо вам.</h7>                                                         

У питальних реченнях will і would вживаються y другій oco6i для вираження ввічливого прохання, запрошення, причому would надає проханню особливо ввiчливого відтінку:

Will you have а cup of tea?     Випийте чашку чаю.

ДІЄСЛОВО NEED

Дієслово need вживається як модальне і як смислове. Як модальне, дієслово need у сполученнi з Indefinite Infinitive виражає  н е о б х і д н і с т ь  виконання дій стосовно теперішнього або майбутнього часу і вживається у питальних і заперечних реченнях.

У значенні модального дiєслово need має лише форму теперішнього часу.

Питальна й заперечна форми утворюються без допоміжного дієслова to dо і вживаються з інфінітивом основного дієслова без частки to:

You need not trouble              Вам зовсім не треба турбуватися

about that at all.                     про це.

Дієслово need як смислове означає "мати  потребу  в чомусь". У цьому значенні воно відмінюється за загальними правилами i вживається в теперішньому, минулому i майбутньому чaci:

I`ll need this magazine.           Meнi цей журнал буде потрібний.

Iнфінітив після нього вживається з часткою to, питальна й заперечна форми в Present Indefinite i Past Indefinite утворюються з допомогою дієслова to do:

Уоu don't need to say а lot     Не треба говорити дурниць.

of nonsense.

Perfect Infinitive, вжитий з дiєсловом need, означає, що дія, в якiй не було необхідностi, відбулася:

Уоu needn't have done the      Не треба було виконувати цю вправу

exercise in a written form.       письмово.

ДІЄСЛОВО DARE

Дієслово dare означає: м ат и  с м і л и в і с т ь  або  з у х в а л ь с т в о зробити щось. Воно вживається переважно в питальних і заперечних реченнях.

Dare вживається як модальне і смислове дієслово. У першому випадку воно утворює питальну й заперечну форми теперішнього і минулого часу без допоміжного дієслова tо dо, у тpeтій особі однини теперішнього часу не має закiнчення -(е)s і вживається з інфiнiтивом без частки to:

How dare you say it?              Як ви смієте казати це?

Як смислове дiєслово dare відмінюється за загальними правилами; інфiнiтив пiсля нього вживається з часткою to.

SECTION I

Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension

1.   Read the following international words and give their Ukrainian equivalents:

anthropology, industry, ichthyologist, project, test, economy, resourсe, center, normal, tradition.

2.   Define the meaning of the following words  by word-building affixes:

  1. pollute, pollution, pollutant, polluted,  unpolluted;
  2. ecology, ecological, ecologist,  unecological;
  3. society, social, sociology, unsocial, unsociable;
  4. environ, environment, environmental, environmentalist, environmentally;
  5. technology, technological, technologist;
  6. generate, generation, regenerating, self-regenerating, degeneration;
  7. sphere, biosphere, atmosphere, atmospheric;
  8. norm, normal,  normalize, enormous;
  9. pure, purity, purify,  purification, purificative, purifying;
  10. neutral, neutralisation, neutralist, neutralizer, neutrality;
  11.  prove, improve,  improvement, improver, improved, improvable;
  12.  regret, regretful, regrettable;
  13.  industry, industrial, industrialist, industrialization;
  14.  economy, economic, economist, economizer, economically;
  15.  necessary, necessarily, necessitate, unnecessary, necessity;
  16.  possible, possibility, impossibility, possibly, imposible;
  17.  utilize, utilization, utilized, utility, utilityman;
  18.  radiate, radiation, radiator, radioactive, irradiation;
  19.  continue, continuation, continuous, discontinue;
  20.  unfortunately, fortune, fortuitous, fortunate;
  21.  nutrition, nutrient, nutritions, nutritive;
  22.  sustain, sustained, sustention, sustainable;
  23.  develop, development;
  24.  prosper, prosperous;
  25.  extract, extractive;
  26.  exploit,exploitation;
  27.  aqua, aquatic, aquaculture;
  28.  crowd, overcrowded;
  29.  unfavourable, favour, favourable;
  30.  productive, unproductive;
  31.  protect, protection;

3.   Memorize the following words and expressions necessary to comprehend the text:

sustain                                               – підтримувати

sustainable                               – стійкий

entity                                        – буття, суть, сутність; тут – організація

investigate                                – досліджувати, розвідувати

alter                                          – змінювати

consequence                             – наслідок  

profit                                        – прибуток, вигода

promote                                   – сприяти, допомагати

rubber                                       – каучук, гума

fiber                                          – волокно

drought                                              – посуха

succumb                                   – поступатися, не витримувати

induce                                       – спонукати, викликати

tension                                               – напруга

alleviate                                    – полегшувати

interact                                              – взаємодіяти

constraint                                 – примус, тиск

consequence                             – наслідки

goal                                          – мета

prosper                                              – процвітати

to be involved                          – бути включеним

kinship                                              – свояцтво, спорідненість

significantly                              – значно

piassaba palm                                   – пальма

solicit                                       – просити, вимагати, ходатайствувати

prohibit                                    – забороняти

discus                                       – дискус (назва риби)

lament                                      – скарга

extinction                                 – вимирання

breed                                        – порода, вид

depletion                                  – зменшення запасів

repercussion                             – віддача, відзвук

upstream                                  – вверх за течією

procure                                              – забезпечувати, заготовляти

poverty                                              – бідність

feasible                                              – можливий, вірогідний

aquaculture                              – аквакультура, рибництво

mercury                                    – ртуть

prudence                                  – обережність

solution                                    – вирішення  (проблеми )

4. Read the text and carry out the following assignments:

a)     find the paragraph describing the droughts during the first half of 1995;

b)    find the sentences telling about the ornamental fishery in the municipality of Borcelos;

c) find the abstracts dealing with wild fish stocks.

 

 

TEXT A

PURSUING THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF WILD CAUGHT
ORNAMENTAL FISHES IN THE MIDDLE RIO NEGRO, AMAZONAS, BRAZIL

by Gregory Prang

As a Ph.D. student in anthropology at Wayne State University, in Detroit, Michigan, I have been studying the ornamental fish industry since 1993. In 1994 I was contracted by the Universidade do Amazonas to work with the "Project Piaba" (ornamental fish) which has been developed by Dr. Ning Labbish Chao, an ichthyologist.  My role in the project is to conduct research on the socioeconomy of the ornamental fishery of the middle Rio Negro. Together with students and the support of several private and public entities, we are investigating the issue of sustainable harvest of ornamental fish in the region.

Whatis Sustainable Development?

Sustainable development is a difficult achievement because the goals of commerce are rarely compatible with ecosystemic principles . In order to test the concept of sustainable yields, both ecological and human factors (the struggle for survival and the realization of social and cultural goals) must be viewed as a single system, a "socionatural system." Socionatural systems are composed of interacting social institutions which present possibilities and constraints that effect human decisions that in turn alter those institutions as well as the environment. The consequence of socionatural systems is what Bennett calls "ecological transition." Ecological transition refers to the transformation of the natural environment according to human needs, wants and profit motives. Thus, we might say that the sustainable harvest of wild caught ornamental fishes is promoted or constrained by the interaction of collectors, intermediaries, exporters, importers, hobbyists, regulators, environmentalists, etc., and their various goals.

If the ornamental fish trade is to continue to grow and prosper, its participants, from collectors to hobbyists, must understand the socioeconomic, and environmental costs and benefits that prevail at local, regional and international levels. Sustainable development of ornamental fish will be obtained when all parties learn to balance environmental, social and economic imperatives. With this in mind, I would like to share some of my findings regarding the collection phase of the trade in the middle Rio Negro region of Brazil.

The Ornamental Fishery of the Middle Rio Negro

The heart of the ornamental fish trade in the state of Amazonas is the municipality of Barcelos (pop. 12,000; area 122,490 km2), located 240 miles upriver from the capital, Manaus. The economy of Barcelos is largely based on the extraction of products found in the forest and river systems. The capture of ornamental fishes provides the principal economic activity for the municipality Barcelos, Amazonas. The trade contributes at least 60% of the income revenue in the municipality. Although I have not concluded research on the issue, at least 30 hundred families are reported to be involved in the trade of ornamental fish , and many others, possibly 80% , have some economic relation to the trade. Other extractive resources in the region include Brazil nuts, palm hearts and piassaba palm fibers.

Riverine communities depend on extractive industries to obtain basic food items such as rice, beans, manioc, coffee, sugar, salt, milk, etc. The socioeconomic organization of the extractive economy is based principally on kinship, compadria (relationships created among parents in the Catholic ritual of baptism) and patron/client relations. In extractive economies the patron is generally an intermediary. The real key to the distribution of consumer goods in the interior of Barcelos is the patron/intermediary. It is he/she that supplies the communities with much needed goods which are unavailable so far from regional centers such as Manaus.

Over the last decade the prices paid for extractive products such as balata (Mandikara bindenata and M. huberi), rubber, Brazil nuts and sorva (Couma sp.) dropped significantly. Although there is still some activity in sorva and Brazil nuts, fibers from the piassaba palm (Leopoldinia piassaba) and ornamental fishes are now the only really viable extractive products. Further, the price of piassaba fell by nearly 50% during the last year. Thus, the intermediary within the trade of ornamental fish now plays an increasingly significant role in the local economy.

The ornamental fishery of the middle Rio Negro has been productive without any evidence of devastating environmental destruction for the last fifty years. However, the status of the extractive industries, as well as human population growth in the region, is causing a significant increase in the number of ornamental fishers and intermediaries. This increase, combined with a seemingly high rate of mortality and environmental factors, may place pressure on the fish stocks. Further, these problems may lead to increased exploitation of other forest and aquatic resources, as well as cause migration to already overcrowded urban centers.

Natural Factors

The severe drought during the first half of 1995 may reveal some of the intricacies of the interaction of environmental and socioeconomic variables. The drought had some negative effects on the fishery of the middle Rio Negro.

Generally, the rainy season arrives in April, at which time fish migrate upstream and into the flooded forests. With the expansion of their aquatic habitat, fishes enjoy higher nutrient levels, better water quality, and less crowded conditions. All of these conditions lead to healthier fish, and higher reproduction levels. However, the drought was prolonged and many fish died in dried up streams and lakes, while those that lived had to wait to take advantage of the optimal conditions of the flooded forest. Consequently, the breeding season was delayed. For the first three months of the fishing season (August-October) the fishers and intermediaries complained that the yield, and size of cardinal tetras (Paracheirodon axelrodi) was below normal. They claimed that the reason was because the young fish had not had sufficient time to feed and grow in the flooded forest.

Larger fishes are more healthy and are less likely to succumb to disease and die in transport, and therefore sell for higher prices than do small ones. The fishers and intermediaries lamented about the size of the cardinals. Depending on the purchase arrangements between exporters and intermediaries, prices paid to intermediaries for cardinals range between $5.00-10.00/1,000. Smaller cardinals were gaining a price of only $3.00-8.00/1,000, while fishers in the riverine communities were only receiving $1.50-5.00/1,000.

My field observations indicate that, by November of 1995, the fishing stocks in at least two rivers, Rio Cuarés and Rio Cuini, were so low as to induce certain intermediaries to move to other less affected fishing grounds. This has lead to tension between them and the intermediaries who have traditionally operated in these less affected areas. Additionally, the presence of more intermediaries seems to be correlated with higher levels of capture in these areas. It is possible that the drought was, at least in part, responsible for this outcome. If this assumption is true, then it may be that when climatic conditions are unfavourable overfishing is more probable. It needs to be proven whether fishing grounds are unproductive under more normal climatic conditions. If so, fishery management strategies must be devised to lessen the effects on stocks and alleviate socioeconomic conflict.

Wild Fish Stocks

Although some researchers have already proposed that some stocks are diminishing , they do not provide any concrete data. Their warnings may be based on knowledge of the fact that, in 1988, fishers in the regions of the Rio Jufariz in Barcelos and Rio Teá of Santa Isabel do Rio Negro solicited the Brazilian environmental protection agency (SUDEPE, now IBAMA) to prohibit the fishing of discus in those localities for one year due to a decline in discus (Symphysodon sp.) populations. Additionally, in 1989, the president of the ornamental fish exporters association in Manaus (ACEPOAM), Sebastião Corrêa, proposed closing down the rivers Jufariz, Cuarés, and Aiuana for two years to preserve the stocks of cardinal tetras ; this never happened. He did succeed in prohibiting the fishing of cardinals between May and July, and their exportation in June and July.

Often overlooked in research on sustainable development in general, and the live ornamental fish trade specifically, is the economic law of "supply and demand". The ornamental fisheries and the variety of fishes sought are controlled by the international consumer demand for ornamental fishes. Exporters in Manaus only ask their fishers to deliver quantities and varieties of fish for which they have requests.

There is no evidence that discus populations are in danger at this time. In fact, during the later part of the 1994-1995 fishing season, and during November of 1995, many fishermen had large stocks of discus on hand but could not find buyers.

Over the last three decades (1976-1993) the export of cardinal tetras from Amazonas has remained in the range of 12-19 million per year. Although fishers and intermediaries lament that it now takes a week to capture the same number of fish that once took one day about thirty years ago, it may be that a stable demand for the cardinal tetra is not been great enough to carry it to extinction. Further, fishers are quick to point out that the number of fish lost during the collection and transport phases has improved greatly since that time, largely because of improved capture and handling procedures, and fish health remedies. They recount that up to 100%  losses were not uncommon during the decade of the sixties.

Is Aquaculture the Solution?

There are certain environmentalists who would like to see the capture and marketing of wild caught fishes replaced by captive breeding. What they fail to recognize is social and economic consequences either of this action would cause in the region. If aquaculture is a necessary measure, it should be developed in regions where the fishes have long sustained the population, such as Barcelos.

The cardinal tetra is marked as an attractive candidate for captive breeding. The cardinal accounts for 70-80% of the total capture of ornamental fish in the middle Rio Negro. The loss of this fish in the trade would leave many riverine people with few economic alternatives. Just as sad is the fact that many of the trade participants and their families would lose a "way of life;" a fact that many fishers are quick to point out. Numerous fishers have explained to me that they have been fishing for cardinals all of their lives. They have raised families, and aided and employed their fellow citizens; all with the profits gained from fishing for cardinals.

 

What to do?

Fishing stock depletion, or the displacement of fishing with aquaculture outside of the region would have unknown, possibly serious, social, economic and environmental repercussions. Fishers in the riverine communities may seek out other ways of procuring basic food items or flee to Manaus which already suffers from poverty and severe underemployment. Intermediaries may become desperate and increase the cost of goods while encouraging economic activities that may have more severe environmental consequences. Economic alternatives to ornamental fishing include: gold mining which contaminates the river system with mercury; cattle raising which requires large-scale deforestation in many cases; uncontrolled lumbering; and the exploitation of aquatic and forest fauna, many of which are already threatened such as the manatee and various turtle species.

The interaction between social, economic and environmental variables is a crucial consideration in understanding the ornamental fishery of the middle Rio Negro. Given the lack of other feasible, alternative economic endeavors in an economy that emphasizes extraction of aquatic and forest resources, measures must be taken that ensure the economic viability and environmental preservation of the region.

Conclusion

A sustainable ornamental fishery is essentially the only current alternative to more economically, or environmentally destructive activities. More research on the socioeconomy, and the biodiversity and ecosystems of the middle Rio Negro will provide the necessary information in determining the future sustainability of the fishery. The research conducted by Project Piaba will be instrumental in answering the following questions: What integrative management strategy will accommodate the adaptive strategies of the parties that influence, or are influenced by the trade in ornamental fish? Which management strategy will be the most profitable and, at the same time, least destructive to the environment and the fishes therein? What are the political, social and economic constraints to the implementation of such a management strategy? What is the role of consumer demand in sustainable development? With concrete knowledge of fish diversity, abundance, distribution and habitats, and the socioeconomic contexts of those involved in the trade, Project Piaba will propose a variety of solutions and their possible consequences regarding local marketing strategies, legislative prudence and environmental preservation.

5. Translate  the words and expressions into Ukrainian:

sustainable ornamental fishery, environmentally destructive activities, to become

desperate;  fishing stock depletion; economic repercussions; supply and demand; to be in danger;  a fishing season; stable demand; captive breeding; rainy season; to migrate upstream; flooded forest; economic law.

6. Find in the text the synonyms to the following words:

harvest, purpose, main, increasingly, little, big, a lot of.

7. Give the antonyms to  the  following words:

private, difficult, single, possible, natural, continue, upriver, large, dependent, real, unavailable, far, really, healthy.

8. Complete the sentences using the text.

  1. All these conditions lead to ... .
  2. If the ornamental fish trade is to continue to grow and prosper ... .
  3. The heart of the ornamental fish trade is ... .
  4. There are certain environmentalists who would like to see ... .
  5. The cardinal tetra is marked as an ... .
  6. They have raised families, and aided and employed ... .
  7. Fishing stock depletion, or the displacement of fishing with aquaculture outside the .. .
  8. Economic alternatives to ornamental  fishing include ... .
  9. The interaction between social, economic and environmental ... .
  10. A sustainable ornamental fishery is essentially the only current alternative
    to ... .
  11. With concrete knowledge of fish diversity, abundance, distribution ... .

9. Answer the following questions on the text:

  1. What was the role of Gregory Prang in the ornamental fishes projects?
  2. What is sustainable development?
  3. Why must ecological and human factors  be viewed as a single system?
  4. What can we say about the sustainable harvest?
  5. When will sustainable development of ornamental fish be obtained?
  6. Why does fishering play an increasingly significant role in the local economy?
  7. What is causing a significant increase in the number of ornamental fishes?
  8. What was the effect  of the drought of the first half of 1995 on the fishery?
  9. When does the rainy season begin?
  10. What had lead to tension  between intermediaries?
  11. What regions should aquaculture be developed in?
  12. Is there any evidence that discus populations are in danger?
  13. What amount of cardinal tetras is exported from Amazonas?
  14. How long does it take now to capture the same number of fish that took a day about 30 years ago?
  15. What regions should aquaculture be developed?
  16. What repercusssions would have fishing stock depletion or the displacement of fishing with aquaculture?
  17. What are economic alternatives to ornamental fishing?

10. Write down textual word-building chains (TWBC) with roots "fish"  and "sustain" from the text. State the macrotopic of the text taking into account that TWBC are theme descriptors.

11. Make up  Denotative Graph 8 to the text.

12. Express the main idea of the text in the shortest possible way.

13. Write down your annotation of this text.

14. Render the text  using Denotative Graph 8.

 

 

 

 

SECTION II

Structure and Written Expressions

1.   Write out of the text sentences with modal verbs, translate them into Ukrainian.

2.   Translate  into English.

  1. Кліматичні умови можуть впливати на розвиток виробництва.
  2. Аквакультуру слід розвивати в регіонах, населення яких займається виробництвом.
  3. Кожен повинен розуміти соціоекономічні і екологічні умови розвитку виробництва.
  4. Йому необхідно прокинутись о 7 годині.
  5. Вони, напевно, вже побудували новий міст через Дніпро.
  6. Коли я маю повернути книжку?
  7. Можна мені увімкнути світло?
  8. У нашому місті ви можете побачити будинок, що був побудований у XVII  столітті.
  9. Моя сестра вміє грати на скрипці.
  10. Не може бути, щоб він уже приїхав.

3.   Match the sentences.

1. You ought to do morning exercises.               1. Ми можемо завершити цю

    роботу сьогодні

2. My sister can play the violin.                         2. Ви повинні провітрювати

    кімнату кожного дня.

3. You must air the room  every day.                 3. Я можу користуватися цим            

    журналом до понеділка.

4. I may keep the magazine till Monday.   4. Вам слід би робити ранкову

    зарядку.

5. We can finish this work today.             5. Моя сестра вміє грати на

    скрипці.

SECTION III

Listening Comprehension

1.   Listen to the tape-recorded text below and be ready to choose the best answer for the following questions:

1. What are the activities of zoos  and public aquaria focused on?

2. Do the activities of zoos and public aquaria emphasize different aspects of their common goal?

3. What have public aquaria traditionally relied upon?

4. Freshwater biotopes are highly disjunct, aren't they ?

5. How can ecosystems able to support larger numbers of biodiversity be described?

TEXT B

ENDANGERED ISLANDS AND ANCIENT LAKES: ACHIEVABLE CONSERVATION GOALS FOR THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

In response to the concern over the loss of global biodiversity, zoological park and public aquaria  have substantially redefined their missions. The activities of these institutions are increasingly focused on affecting conservation through a mix of captive breeding programs,  habitat  protection and public education.

While zoos and public aquaria share a common goal in this respect, their activities in support of conservation emphasize different aspects of this  triad. Zoos allocate a significant percentage of their resources to captive breeding programs, which often have a significant field component. Public aquaria, in contrast, have tended to view their mission as primarily one of conservation education.

There are several reasons for this dichotomy. The desirability of breeding large terrestrial animals in captivity was established as an integral part of most zoos' corporate culture long before the relevance of such activity to conservation programs was fully motivated by a desire to lessen reliance upon wild-caught animals for display, a state of affairs fraught  with difficulties even  fifty years ago, when such specimens were far more readily obtainable. Given the unquestioned magnitude of the threats now confronting most of the "charismatic megavertebrates" in nature, organized captive breeding programs now represent  the only means of assuring  the availability of such animals for display.

This  observation  is not meant to denigrate either the expending  commitment of zoos to captive breeding programs or their real importance in the growing battle to conserve a meaningful fraction of the Earth's wealth of life. Its object is rather to help place the far less  dramatic commitment of public aquaria to this aspect of conservation in its appropriate perspective.

Public aquaria, in contrast, have traditionally relied upon outside suppliers for the great majority of the animals they display. Tropical freshwater and marine organisms are readily available at reasonable prices through the ornamental fish trade, while government-run hatcheries and  commercial fishermen can be counted upon to supply many temperate freshwater and marine animals at bearable cost. Marine mammals apart, the regulatory obstacles facing an institution  that wishes to collect representatives of its local aquatic fauna are minimal  and in most jurisdictions, even these will be waived in consideration of its educational mission. The interaction of these factors has historically furnished a strong disincentive to committing significant institutional resources to captive breeding efforts for display purposes.

The overwhelming marine orientation of most public aquria has also impeled them to focus upon conservation education at the expense of captive breeding programs. This focus on such issues as ocean dumping and other forms of pollution or drift-net  fishing is understandable. The threats facing the marine environment tend obviously to bear upon whole ecosystems rather than single species, while the most notable exceptions to this pattern, the great whales, are unpromising candidates for captive breeding. One also suspects that an intense focus upon the marine realm has blinded many aquarium professionals the actual distribution of global aquatic biodiversity.

This state of affairs reflects the fact that biodiversity in freshwater aquatic ecosystems is distributed in a manner fundamentally different from that usually seen in the terrestrial or marine realms. Freshwater biotopes tend to be highly disjunct and are often of limited extent, while their residents are characterized by very low mobility. Dry land and salt water are equally effective barriers to the dispersal of freshwater animals. These factors interact to promote extensive allopatric speciation. As a result, biodiversity in freshwater faunas tends to be high even in areas  where the total number of species present at any given locality is very low, such as the deserts of western North  America. Ecosystems able to support larger numbers of species manifest levels of biodiversity that can only be described as spectacular.

Unfortunately, the same factors that have led to high levels of biodiversity in the freshwater realm place it at unusually high risk. High levels of endemism  combined with inability to disperse means that loss of a given habitat results in the extension of the species native to it. While this observation  applies equally to the terrestrial and marine realms, its practical consequences in this instence stem from the fact that freshwater biotopes are peculiarly susceptible to a wide range of anthropogenic impacts.

2.   Annotate the text in  Ukrainian.

3.   Do you know that:

For over a hundred years the South Wales Sea Fisheries Committee has been responsible for managing the marine environment, especially in relation to fisheries around the coast of South and West Wales.

Streching from Cardiff to Cardigan  and from the high water mark to over six miles offshore, the Committee is responsible for a coastline of 683 km and a sea area of 4685 square kilometres. In the South West of the district, because of the Pembrokeshire islands, the area of the Sea Fisheries District is extended to 35 kilometres from the coast.

The recognised pragmatic and effective management of inshore waters for over 100 years is in so small part due to the make up of the Comittee which is laid down by the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act 1966. Half the members are local Authority Councillors representing  the contributing Authorities and the others are appointees of the Secretary of  State for Wales being persons having a knowledge of and interest in local fisheries. This mix of expertise and interest ensures that a fair and knowlegable view is taken when deciding upon the many issues before the Committee which has the power to co-opt additional members where expert advice  is required for marine environmental protection matter.

The Sea Fisheries Committee has law making powers for the purposes of fisheries management and protection of the marine environment and continues to lead in the development of conservation practices.

Measures such as minimum mesh sizes of nets that protect immature fish, a maximum size for boats (which keeps more powerful vessels outside three miles), and minimum sizes for fish and shellfish protecting them so that they can spawn naturally. Restrictive permit shemes to measure and control effort and a range of other regulations decided  upon locally, maintain the protection given by the Committee over many years.

4.   Answer the following question:

What are the tasks of the Committee?


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