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Communication strategies

 

 

Some information on cultural differences

 

Distancing and compromising are the key features of British and American communicative behaviour; their projections manifest themselves on practically every level of human interaction - physical and psychological, social and interpersonal, verbal and nonverbal. Unlike Ukrainians whose style of communication is largely determined by the context and the so called human factor, Britons and Americans tend to rely on strategies as their communication is highly ritualised and conventional. In conversations they emphasise formal aspects often at the expense of the content, avoid saying what they actually mean, demonstrate skin deep emotions - to maintain comfortable atmosphere, to avoid conflicts and save face.

Effective communication between Ukrainians and their English speaking partners could be based on the two A-s of politeness: Avoid directness and Avoid silence which help to keep proper distancing and follow unwritten rules and regulations.

 

Consider the mini case below, choose the best answer and give your reasons.

a) A Ukrainian reporter intended to publish a news story in a British magazine. He contacted the secretary and told her about the details. "Oh, how very exciting", she said, "I'll inform the person in charge, he'll have a closer look at your story". "Do you think I should come and speak in person?" asked the reporter. "No, I wouldn't think so, I'll ring you up and let you know his opinion", said the secretary. "What did her remarks actually mean?

 

A The secretary was genuinely impressed by the news story.

B The secretary was just using a clicked expression of polite denial.

C The secretary wanted to gain time to form her opinion.

 

Think of your examples in English and in Ukrainian illustrating the following functions:

a) inviting sb,

b) offering to do sth,

c) expressing opinion (negative or positive).

 

Give examples of possible English set phrases involved in those functions and compare them with those typical of the Ukrainian conversation.

 

 Distancing by tense shifting

 

Language review

 

Distancing is aimed at making requests and orders, suggestions and inquiries etc. sound less direct and therefore more polite. Consequently, certain tense forms and modals are used for this purpose. The tense shifting tactics is based on using utterances in the Future or Past Indefinite or Continuous tenses instead of those in Present Indefinite. Those tense forms serve to make the corresponding phrases in Present Indefinite more distant from the immediate reality.

 

Distancing by tense forms

Future:	Present	Past:
Indefinite (Simple)	-------------	Indefinite (Simple)
Continuous (Progressive)	Continuous	Continuous

 

The tactics are quite common for the following functions:

ordering, instructing, requesting, enquiring, stating intentions, advising, suggesting, offering etc.

 

Shifting to the Future or the Past

 

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of distancing your utterances by shifting Present Indefinite to the Future or the Past. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Examples
ordering/ instructing	Open the books and start reading.
	Will you open the books and start reading?
	You must complete the task in 5 minutes.
	I'll have to ask you to complete the task in 5 minutes.
	Now, fill in those forms, please.
	Now, you'll need to fill in those forms, please.
suggesting	Let's go out for a meal downtown.
	Shall we go out for a meal somewhere downtown?
offering	Let me help you.
	Shall I help you?
stating a fact	It is $10. (In a shop)
	That will be $10.
accepting an offer	That's OK.
	That'll be OK. (In a shop)
enquiring	How many guests do you intend to invite?
	How many guests did you intend to invite?
	I wonder if you are free at ten o'clock.
	I wondered if you were free at ten o'clock.
offering /inviting	I wonder if you'd like to join our discussion.
	I wondered if you'd like to join our discussion.
advising	I think you could ask your teacher about it.
	I thought you could ask your teacher about it.
suggesting	I think it might be nice to have a break.
	I thought it might be nice to have a break.

 

 

Shifting to Continuous

 

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of distancing your utterances by shifting Indefinite tenses to Continuous. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Examples
enquiring	Let us know your plans.
	What are you planning to do?
	Are you staying with us at Christmas?
	Will you be staying with us at Christmas?
stating intentions (parting formulae)	Sorry, I must go now, (or I'll be late for dinner).
	Sorry, I must be going now, (or I'll be late for dinner).
	I look forward to hearing from you soon.
	I'm looking forward to hearing from you soon.
suggesting	I thought - what about having a picnic?
	I was thinking - what about having a picnic?
requesting	I hope you can give me a hand in packing.
	I 'm hoping you can give me a hand in packing.
	I wondered if you had a bag to spare.
	I was wondering if you had a bag to spare.

 

 

Task 1. Make the following sentences more polite (indirect). (Choose any 5 sentences).

 

1. Fetch me some application forms, please.

2. Use block letters only.

3. Sign it, please.

4. What do you look for?

5. Are you looking for anything special?

6.1 want this blouse and two shirts.

7. That's 120 dollars.

8. Let's take a few days off in July.

9.1 think it will be nice to go to the lakes.

10. What about borrowing a boat for our trip?

11. Could you help me?

12. Are you busy right now?

13. Have you got a double room?

14. How many days do you intend to spend?

15. Are you staying for the weekend?

16. What date do you plan to leave?

 

Task 2. Write a brief note / letter to a friend / colleague who wants to visit your town offering your assistance.

 

 Distancing by modals

 

Interpersonal use of modals could, would, might is characteristic of quite a number of set formulae (also known as common formulae of politeness). It is the use of modals that makes requests and offers, instructions and orders etc. more indirect suggesting the idea of their being merely intentions.

 

Distancing modals

 

could, would, might
question formulae,	conditional expressions	subjunctive expressions
verbal structures

 

The tactics are quite common for the following functions:

requesting, offering, enquiring, suggesting, advising, ordering / instructing, expressing desire / opinion etc.

 

Using modals in set phrases

 

Consider the examples below illustrating the use of modals in set question formulae and verbal structures as another distancing technique. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Examples
requesting	Will you lend me your printer?
	Could / would you lend me your printer?
inviting an opinion	Is it alright to do it this way?
	Might it be alright to do it this way?
enquiring	You're not going to Hull by any chance?
	You wouldn 't go to Hull by any chance?
	When did it take place?
	When would that have taken place?
suggesting	Let's give them a lift.
	Suppose we might give them a lift?

 

advising	You should /must warn them in advance.
	You could/might warn them in advance.
offering	I think he'll spend a night here.
	I'd think he could /might spend a night here.
expressing surprise	He won? I thought he wasn't good at chess.
	I 'd have thought he wasn't good at chess.
expressing a / an (critical) opinion	I say, this is not the best way to treat cats.
	I’d say this is not the best way to treat cats.
stating intentions	He wants to make an opening speech.
	He'd like to make an opening speech.
stating desire / preferences	I want /need a cup of strong coffee.
	I’d like /prefer a cup of strong coffee.
refusing an enquiry	I won't tell you offhand, I'm afraid.
	I couldn 't tell you offhand, I'm afraid

 

 

 Using modals in conditional and subjunctive phrases

 

Consider the examples below illustrating the use of modals in conditional and subjunctive expressions as still another means of distancing. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

 

Functions	Examples
enquiring /offering	I wonder if you are interested in those facts.
	I wonder if you might be interested in those facts.
enquiring /inviting	Are you going to be free for lunch?
	Would you be free for lunch?
suggesting /advising	You should join up with this firm.
	If I were you I'd join up with this firm.
	Let him /He should go there alone
	It would be better if he went there alone.
ordering /instructing	Will you stand over there?
	If you would stand over there?
ordering /refusing an order	Don't refer to those data.
	I'd rather you didn't refer to those data.
refusing permission	You mustn't /shouldn't disclose those facts.
	I wish you wouldn 't disclose those facts

 

 

Task 3. Make the following sentences more polite (indirect). (Choose any 5 sentences).

 

1. Let's have an evening out.

2. I say, let's go to a restaurant downtown.

3. I don't want you to spend a fortune there.

4. You shouldn't talk in terms of money.

5. I should suggest a bar.

6. We should better go to a cafe.

7.1 thought you didn't like cafe meals.

8. We want a table in the corner.

9. Will you come this way, please?

10. What do you want to drink?

11. Perhaps you want to dance?

12. Won't it be better to have the candles lit?

13. That's what I call in time, as the French say.

14. Is there a telephone I can use?

15. Maybe you've picked up any lost purses?

16. Can you give me more details?

17. When did you find it missing, exactly?

 

Task 4. Write a brief note / letter to

 

a) a shop selling the items you're interested in to inquire about necessary details;

b) a friend working in a tourist firm describing a way of spending free time you prefer.

 

Downtoning information

 

Language review

 

Hinting is aimed at "neutralising" emotionally coloured utterances thus making them sound casual and less direct. The result desired could be achieved by using understatement (i.e. saying less than you imply). Understatement could be effected by the tactics of downtoning and negation. Information could be toned down by means of certain speech devices - adverbs, verbs and fillers - lessening or softening the impact of what is being said.

 

Downtoning devices

 

minimising adverbs, and assertive words

fillers and hesitation devices

verbs of intention also with a) fillers b) vbs of thinking

 

The tactics is quite common for the following functions: explanations, complaints, (negative) opinions, apologies etc.

 

 Minimising emotional impact

 

Consider the examples of understatement given below to illustrate different ways

downtoning. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Examples
criticising	The room is overcrowded
	The room is a little overcrowded.
explaining	Sorry. . . I'm in a hurry.
	Sorry, (it's just that) I'm in a bit of a hurry.
explaining (refusing a meal)	I'm not hungry.
	I'm just not (very) hungry.
apologising	It was a slip of the tongue.
	It was just a slip of the tongue.
expressing surprise	The news shocked me
	The news somewhat shocked me.
enquiring/requesting	I was wondering if I could ask you something.
	I was just wondering if I could ask you something.

 

 

Avoiding certainty

 

Consider the examples given below to illustrate different ways of avoiding certainty by

using

a) fillers which level unwanted emotions and conceal negative attitudes

b) verbs of intention which lessen sharp criticism safely transferring what is being said to the realm of intentions. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Examples
apologising	I want to apologise.
	I've got a kind o/an apology to make.
explaining	There's misunderstanding.
	There's a kind o/misunderstanding.
	It was out of place.
	Well, er. I suppose, it was more or less out of place.
expressing (negative) opinions	We overlook the importance of tests.
	We tend to overlook the importance of tests.
	I feel that it is important
	I am inclined to feel that it is important
	It could be better if you quit.
	I sort of think it could be better if you quit.
	I think the scheme needs to be improved.
	Well, actually I think the scheme needs to be sort of improved. I mean, it looks like that, so to speak.

 

 

Task 5. Make the following sentences more polite (indirect). (Choose any 5 sentences).

 

1. Pat says that Bess is buying a new cottage.

2. It looks like it is untimely.

3.1 was surprised and asked her husband.

4. My question took him unawares.

5. He was disappointed by her choice.

6.1 also think she is impractical.

7. The place is devoid of light and greenery.

8. The surroundings are industrial.

9. It is on the outskirts of the city.

10. She thinks it's a minor discomfort.

11. She says it's a 10-minute walk to the nearest bus stop.

 

Task 6. Write a brief note of explanation / apology/ complaint giving reasons for your failure at an exam / misbehaviour at a lesson / misusing someone else's property.

 

Hinting by negation

 

Language review

 

Understatement manifests itself in different types of negation, the most common being explicit, implicit and double negation. Explicit negation is typical of an ordinary negative sentence or could be expressed by a verb of thinking (transferred negation), or by a non-assertive word. Implicit negation could be found in an affirmative sentence containing the words of negative or minimising meaning. Double negation occurs when an ordinary negative sentence contains the words of negative meaning.

 

Types of negation

 

explicit, also with:	implicit with:	double with:
a) degree adverbs	a) adj. like little/ few	words of negative meaning
b) transferred negation	b) negative adverbs	(also with prefixes/suffixes)
c) non-assertive words	c) vbs. fail, lack etc.	adj., adv., vbs, prepositions

 

The tactics are quite common for the following functions:

offering, disagreeing, expressing (critical) opinion, (negative) attitude, dislike etc.

 

Explicit negation

 

 Explicit negation is used to replace an emotionally coloured word by a neutral one, the purport of understatement each time being derived from the context (thus, e.g. I'm not pleased could be treated differently: I'm simply displeased / shocked / definitely disgusted etc.). Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of using explicit negation. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Examples
expressing an opinion	I'm displeased by his manners. (=I'm definitely disgusted)
	I'm not too pleased by his manners.
	I'm very upset by the progress you make.
	I'm not too happy with the progress you make.
	I'm not sure.
	I'm not really sure.
enquiring after sb's health /greeting	How is your aunt? - She is not well /terminally ill, you know.
	How is your aunt? - Not bad, considering, thank you.
expressing dislike	I'm not keen on TV (= I hate TV)
	I'm not particularly keen on TV.
explaining	It is not easy (= It is very difficult)
	It is not quite that easy; you see...
disagreeing	I think I can't fully agree with it. (=I disagree)
	I don 't think I could quite agree with it.
offering	I suppose you won't accept my offer. (=I hope you will)
	I don 't suppose you'll accept my offer.
stating a fact	He told me nothing about it.
	He didn't tell me anything about it.

 

Implicit and double negation

 

Negation as well as negative attitude could be masked by negative adverbs (the manifesting itself implicitly) and words with negative affixes in already negative sentences (the changing the negative meaning for its opposite).

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of using implicit and double negation as means of understatement. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Examples
expressing an opinion	He's got no idea how engines work.
	He's got little idea how engines work.
expressing preferences	I never speak in public.
	I hardly ever speak in public.
expressing a / an (critical) opinion	He doesn't have courage to give it up.
	He lacks courage to give it up.
	His plan is full of drawbacks.
	His plan is not devoid of drawbacks.
	It is possible.
	It is not impossible.
	,He has (many) pretensions.
	He's not without pretensions.

 

 

Task 7. Make the following sentences more polite (indirect). (Choose any 5 sentences).

1. I suppose you've got no news about Roy.

2. Last time he told me nothing about his plans.

3. I couldn't approve of his behaviour of late.

4. I don't see what you mean. Could you be more explicit?

5. Well, he has ambitions.

6. He does not see that the job he is offered is not trivial.

7. 1 appreciate his talents but his approach could not be called reasonable....

8. During his job interview he didn't say a word.

9. He is not right in doing so.

10. The manager was led to think he didn't like the job.

11 . He has reason.

12. Roy has no background knowledge.

13. He has no experience in dealing with people.

14. It is likely he'll be denied this position.

 

Task 8. Write in brief a critical review of an article / essay by a friend of yours.

 

 

Softening and shifting responsibility

 

Language review

 

Softening and shifting responsibility must not be dispensed with, if you wish to keep the conversation going, it is aimed at making what is being said as little potentially offensive to the hearer as possible. Softening devices commonly used for the purposes that could be reduced to the following three types of opinion phrases.

 

Before looking at the table let us listen to three speakers expressing their views. Write down the words and word combinations they use for this purpose and comment on their relevance.

[Julie Pratten Absolute Financial English. English for finance and accounting. Delta Publishing, 2012, CD]

 

mind/ view- phrases	to my mind; in my opinion/view, from my point of view etc.
as- phrases	as far as 1 know; as far as I'm concerned; as / see it; as for me etc.
if- phrases	forgive me if I'm wrong; if /' m not mistaken; if you ask me etc.

 

Generally speaking, softening tactics and techniques are based on the use of different probability phrases and opening phrases which serve to make utterances sound less definite and straightforward.

 

Softening devices

 

Opinion phrases

Probability phrases

General statements

 

The tactics are quite common for the following functions:

expressing opinion / attitude, offering explanations, giving advice etc.

 

Personalising opinions

 

Certain opening phrases and set expressions could be used to soften an opinion, to make it sound just as if it were merely your personal point of view which the other party would be free to disagree with. Another way to "personalise" your opinion is to use an opening phrase with a verb of thinking or a verb of speech.

 

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of "personalising" opinions. Think of

more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Indirect	Direct
expressing an opinion / explaining	In my opinion it would be better to postpone the meeting.	It is ... without opening phrases
	In my (personal) view no repair work is necessary.
	Personally, I (don't) feel you're making the best choice.
	/ reckon/ guess she's the last person to ask for compassion.
	To the best of my knowledge, this line of action is widely practiced.
	As far as I know to find the right decision is not that simple.
	If I'm not mistaken, the matter was highlighted in Issues #2 .
	I 'd like to mention that it has been discussed time and again.

 

Generalising opinions

 

While expressing your attitude, it often becomes necessary to "conceal" your personal view, to mask it by a general statement (as if referring to something that is considered common knowledge) and thus avoid the risk of sounding dogmatic. Different impersonal and probability phrases do well for this purpose.

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of generalising opinions. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Examples
expressing an opinion	I know well that language learning takes time.
	It is well known that language learning takes time.
	I don't know for sure.
	One can't know for sure, it depends on many things.
	It's not a proper way to treat animals.
	They say it's not a proper way to treat animals.
complaining	Our lunch is delayed.
	It appears that our lunch is likely to be delayed.
correcting	You are mistaken, this horse came first.
	You happen to be mistaken, this horse came first.
expressing a critical opinion	You forget some essential details.
	You seem to forget some essential details.

 

 

Task 9. Make the following phrases indirect (you can also add fillers and verbs of intention if

necessary). (Choose any 5 sentences).

 

1. Why do you think he did poorly in the exam?

2. It is his fault.

3. It's due to the time limit. It was too short.

4. You should always leave time to check your answers.

5. Something's gone wrong.

6. The examination board postponed the final decision.

7. You can persuade them to look it all over again.

8. They are not ready with the results, it looks like that.

9. Oh, I can't know for sure.

10. I'd say we unanimously accept that tests take a lot of revising.

11. You can't learn English in a fortnight.

12. He is making a grave mistake.

13. He just doesn't care a bit for language learning.

14. He could turn to intensive methods based on hypnosis.

15. I know well, this approach has a lot of advantages.

16. I doubt that those methods work.

17. My advice is to turn to a professional teacher.

 

Task 10. Write a brief report on your progress in language learning showing your strong points (as an application for a contest).

 

Softening with questions

 

Discussing tactics and techniques

Question form, being softer and sounding less categorical, is a useful device to facilitate the exchange of information and to soften the purport of an order, advice or criticism. Why-questions and yes/ no questions which sound far more polite often soften denials, orders etc., cf: It could wait till morning.

Why couldn't it wait till morning? (pressing offer)

Couldn't it wait till morning? (persuasive question)

Could it wait till morning? (open question)

Commonly, the following types of questions can serve the purpose of reducing straightforwardness.

 

Types of questions

 

persuasive	general:	declarative:	tag:
(negative)	a) negative	a) negative	a) negative
	b) affirmative	b) affirmative	b) non-negative

 

The tactics are quite common for the following functions:

suggesting, offering, enquiring, inviting an opinion, requesting, advising , ordering etc.

 

 

Softening statements

 

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of turning statements into questions. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Examples
advising	You should speak to him directly.
	Why don 't you speak to him directly?
offering	Let us prolong our visit.
	Why couldn't we prolong our visit?
suggesting	We'd better leave at once.
	Won 't it be better (for us) to leave at once?
expressing an opinion	It'd be less expensive to go by car.
	Would it be less expensive to go by car?

 

 Softening by questions

 

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of softening questions. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions	Examples
requesting / offering	Will you find time for it now?
	I don 't suppose you'll find time for it now?
inviting	I want to invite you over this weekend. Are you very busy?
	I'd like to invite you over this weekend, but / imagine you're too busy, aren 'tyou?
requesting / enquiring	Have you seen my cat here?
	You haven 't seen my cat here, have you?
	Do you know where Bells is?
	You don 't know where Bells is, do you?
enquiring	Are you the new teacher?
	You are the new teacher, aren't you?
	Do you take milk in coffee?
	You do take milk in coffee, don't you?
ordering	Will you carry this bag for me?
	Carry this bag for me, will you?

 

 

Task 11. Make the following phrases indirect. (Choose any 5 sentences).

 

1. Ben, have you heard the news? The Smiths are in town.

2. Let's spend a weekend together.

3. Will you be free next weekend?

4. Have you postponed your appointment?

5. We should invite them over.

6. Do you have their home address?

7. Don't forget to send them an invitation.

8. Chris could meet them at the station.

9. You'd better hire a taxi.

10. It would be proper to send a car.

11. Are you here for the first time?

12. Have you met Ben?

13. Sit down.

14. Have some whisky

15. Do you like it straight?

16. We'd better get going, dear Mr. Smith.

17. You can stay for the night.

18. Do you always say what you really think?

 

Task 12. Write a few lines (which you leave in haste) for

a) a friend asking to help find some things you forget to pack;

b) your elders / neighbours to remind them that your invitation/ request still holds.

 

 

 

UPGRADING

Overstatement

 

Language review

 

The communicative support strategy formally emphasising the effect of what is being said serves to demonstrate your interest to other partners. It is based on tactics and techniques of overstatement and aimed at exaggerating the (emotional) aspects thus making the process of communication comfortable for all participants. Different words with maximising / minimising meanings could function as emphasisers and intensifiers. Types of hyperbolisation can be reduced to the following.

 

Types of hyperbolisation

Emphasising	Exaggeration	Double exaggeration	Intensification
with degree adverbs	with emotionally coloured words	with degree adverbs and intensifiers	by expanding and repeating phrases with superlatives

 

The tactics are quite common for the following functions:

expressing gratitude, sympathy, praise, apology; refusing, complimenting, enquiring etc.

Emphasising emotional impact

 

The emphasising function is mostly performed by degree adverbs often used in set formulae of politeness to intensify the expression of gratitude or sympathy, refusals or apologies which reduced to mere thank you or sorry - would sound rude.

 

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of using overstatement. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

Formulae of		Examples
expressing gratitude		1 thank you.
		1 thank you (ever) so much /very much indeed! How can I ever thank you'
		I’m obliged to you! I’m grateful!
		I’m so much obliged to you! I’m so grateful! I can’t tell you how grateful I am .
		You’re kind.
		You’re too kind!
expressing sympathy	I am sorry I’m so sorry! I can’t tell you how sorry I am!
apologising	Sorry (but...) I’m extremely/ terribly lawfully / (ever so sorry (but I really don’t know)
refusing an invitation	I’m afraid, I can’t join you. I’m very much afraid, I can’t join you.
expressing emphatic agreement	That’s what I was going to say. That’s exactly /just what I was going to say.
requesting	I wonder if it is possible for me to leave right now. I wonder if it is at all possible for me to leave right now. No problem. No problem at all.

 

Exaggeration

 

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of using superlatives and emotionally coloured words in set formulae. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions		Examples
replying to greeting		I’m well / OK, thank you. I’m fine, thank you.
expressing desire		I’d like a cup of coffee. I’m dying for a cup of coffee. I’d love it. I haven’t seen you for a long time.
emphatic greeting		I haven’t seen you for ages!
replying to thanks		I’m glad you like it.
requesting		I’m happy /delighted/ thrilled you like it. I don’t want to be a nuisance but could I ask you something? I hate to be a nuisance but could I ask you something?
expressing		How silly of me!
self-criticism		What a fool I’m!
warning		I’ll be very cross, if you go on whistling. Stop whistling or I’ll scream!

 

Task 13. Make the following sentences more polite (indirect). (Choose any 5 sentences).

 

1. Excuse me for disturbing you late.
2. I know no one here I could turn for advice.
3. Oh, come on in. I haven’t seen you of late.
4. Are you tired?
5. Could you spare me some time?
6. I’ll be brief, my story won’t take long.
7. What do you think about this sad and rather delicate matter?
8. Thank you for your piece of advice.
9. I like the way you treat people.
10. How sad! I am sorry.
11. You’re kind! Thank you.
12. Sorry to have taken your time.

 

Task 14. Write a letter ofthanks to a host family you spent summer with / a book firm who sent you a present.

 

INTENSIFICATION

 

The rules of politeness accepted in the English-speaking world presuppose that in communication partners repeat­edly emphasise their (often formal) mutual concern in quite a number of everyday situations. It can be illustrated by the frequent use of different set phrases with sorry, please and thank you etc. Since those “etiquette formulae” have partially lost their initial meaning and are treated as mere formalities speakers need to make conventional phrases sound more sincere. Various techniques of exaggeration serve to create the effect of additional emotional impact.

Double exaggeration	Expanding and repeating
with degree adverbs and intensifiers	phrases with emotionally coloured words and superlatives

The tactics are quite common for the following functions: apologising, complimenting, praising, expressing emotions etc.

 

Double exaggeration

 

Some degree adverbs or superlative adjectives become intensifiers when they lose their direct meaning and their function is merely exaggeration. Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of further intensification. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

Functions		Examples
apologising		Excuse me... I have to bother you at this early hour but...
		I really hate to bother you at this early hour but...
praising		I like the new car.
		I just love the new car. I really enjoyed your present.
		Her latest novel is OK.
		Her latest novel is truly a masterpiece!
complimenting		You’re good at organising things!
		You’re absolutely brilliant at organising things!
expressing self-criticism	I’m a bad dancer.
	I’m a terrible dancer, honestly.
expressing likes/ desires	I cannot do without my computer.
	I simply cannot live without my computer.
	I need/ miss him.
	I ’d just die without him! I mean, literally.
expressing fear/worry	I was very ashamed when they found my diary.
	I was absolutely mortified when they found my diary.

 

 

 

Expanding and repeating

 

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of further intensification. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

Functions	Examples
expressing gratitude (also when accepting presents, invitations)	Great dinner, thanks.
	Grand dinner! You’re a genius'. Thanks for most splendid meal!
	Thank you for your gift.
	Thank you for your splendid gift. I love it! But that’s too much. You shouldn’t have gone to that much expense.
	Thanks. I’d love to come.
	Sounds great. Thanks for asking. I’d love to come.
complimenting	Your new haircut looks nice.
	Your new haircut is fantastic. You look simply incredible.
expressing a positive opinion (praising)	I enjoyed the show.
	The show was terrific! I thoroughly enjoyed it. It was lovely, really.
	Well done.
	You’ve done a fabulous job! You work miracles.
expressing emphatic agreement	That’s what I was going to say.
	You took the words out of my mouth. I can’t agree more.
expressing self-criticism	How silly of me to forget the most obvious!
	What a fool I am! How stupid of me to forget the most obvious!
	Maths is not my strong point.
	I’m completely pants at maths! It’s just totally doing my head in...

 

 

Task 15. Make the following sentences more polite (indirect). (Choose any 5 sentences).

 

1. I don’t mean to be nosy, but can you tell me who sang that piece?
2. Oh, it was Jill! She was nice, wasn’t she?
3. That’s what I was thinking. I like her voice.
4. She says she can’t do without singing.
5. Well, she was good in Carmen last spring.
6. I enjoyed the opera.
7. I remember you also sang there. I like your voice. You can sing nicely.
8. No, I’m a bad singer. Besides, singing classics is not my strong point.
9. I was very surprised when they offered me that part.

                                                                                                                                            

Task 16. Use overstatement to

a)                       express your positive opinion on smb’s presentation / a film you’ve seen,

b)                       compliment your friend praising the way s/he looks / does smth.

 

 

 

 

EXPANDING MONOSYLLABIC REPLIES

 

The strategy of keeping the conversation going is aimed at constantly reacting politely to what you are being said so that the talk would not unexpectedly end. Most “dangerous” in this respect are short answers which - incautiously used - might put a full stop to all the previous efforts, and the ensuing silence might cause embarrassment. Monosyllabic yes/no answers should be made more polite by expanding devices based on different ways of emphasising and softening.

 

Expanding devices

Emphasising with:	Softening with:
a) degree adverbs	a) verbs of thinking	c) conditional and subjunctive phrases
b) verbs of thinking	b) hedges and phrases of reservation

The tactics is quite common for the following functions:

accepting, explaining, (dis)agreeing, refusing, apologising, expressing an opinion etc.

Emphasising positive replies

 

Expanding devices could mainly be reduced to set formulae for emphatic agreement with adverbs and phrases with verbs of thinking. Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of expanding short answers. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

 

Functions		Examples
agreeing		It’s all so very amusing, isn’t it? - Yes, very. / Quite so.
		It must be the best of his novels. — Yes, it certainly is.
		She must be Ann’s daughter? — Right / You ’re quite right.
		Shall I see you in the evening? - Yes, I expect so.
emphatic disagreement		I m getting old, aren’t I? — No, of course not.
granting permission		Can I use your printer? - Yes, alright.
accepting an invitation	Would you join us at the party? - Yes, most willingly. (Thank you.)
complying	Could you please fax that for me? - Why, yes, of course.
with a request	Would you mind speaking up a little? - Yes, sure.
	Would you mind my closing the door? - No, not at all.
apologising	So you’re going to be late again? - Yes, I’m afraid so (= I’m sorry, but...)
expressing	Do you think that’s enough? - Yes, definitely.
an opinion	Will he cope with the new job? - Yes, I hope so.

 

Softening negative replies

Expanding devices could mainly be reduced to set formulae and sentences with verbs of thinking which often help to soften opinions as well as phrases of reservation. Softening formulae with but... are mostly used for apologies and polite refusals.

Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of expanding short answers. Think of more examples possible for some other functions of English.

Functions	Examples
expressing an opinion	Do you think it’s going to rain? - (No,) I hope not.
	Is he really competent? - (No,) I don’t believe so.
	Her state is changing for the better, isn’t it? -1 wouldn’t be so sure.
declining an offer	Are you going to the concert? -I’d really like to say yes but I’m likely to be busy.
	Would you like more cherries? -I’d rather not if you don’t mind, thank you.
refusing permission	Can I go out tonight? - I’d rather you didn’t.
	Can I borrow your bike? - No, please don’t. I’m sorry, but...
disagreeing	Do you agree with our proposal? -Yes, up to a point, but (you see)...
refusing an answer (Do you know?)	I’ve no idea, I’m afraid /1 haven’t got a clue, I’m afraid. /1 wish I knew.
	Sorry, it’s slipped my mind, I’m afraid.
	I’m afraid, I don’t know (yet) /can’t answer / remember/say offhand
	I have to admit/ say I don’t know a great deal about...
	(No,) I’m afraid, not. I’m sorry I can’t help you here.

                                                                                                                                                      

Task 17. Give polite answers to the following questions. (Choose any 5 sentences).

 

 1.        Do you mind my accompanying you to the meeting? - No.

2.       Shall I ask our new assistant to join us? - No. We won’t need her.

3.       Can I borrow your car to get there? - No. It is impossible.

4.       May I use the telephone over there? - No. It is out of order.

5.       Can you tell me where the meeting takes place? - No.

6.       Do you know what’s going on there? - No. I have no idea.

7.       Do you know where the secretary is? - Yes. In the office upstairs.

8.       Can you spare me a few minutes? - Yes.

9.       Have you got an extra copy of the agenda? - Yes.

10.       Is it possible for me to get draft proposals? - Yes.

11.       Do you agree with the project considered? - Yes but not completely.

12.       Isn’t the initial project more time consuming? — No.

13.       Still, do you prefer the latest variant? - Yes.

14.       Is it the best solution? - Yes, except for some minor points.

15.       So you don’t insist on further discussion? - No.

 

Task 18. Write a few appropriate remarks to indicate

a)   refusing an answer;

b)   refusing a permission.

 

 

AVOIDING SILENCE

 

Avoiding silence tactics and techniques are largely used to maintain smooth and uninterrupted flow of communication. Different “silence fillers” and attention signals are used to prevent or fill in different awkward pauses in a conversation. Those phrases perform the important function of indicating that you follow what is going on, your reaction is adequate and the talk would not end abruptly.

“Silence fillers”

reply questions:	“attention signals”:	“allpurpose” nouns
short, echo, tag	exclamations and interjections	and fillers

The tactics is quite common for the following functions:

expressing emphatic agreement, hesitation, surprise, concern, sympathy, praising etc.

 

Reply questions

Reply questions are used to politely demonstrate your interest in what is being said rather than to ask for information. There are three types of reply questions: short questions; question tags (negative and non-negative) and the so called “same-way” tag (only non-negative) and echo questions. Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of reacting politely; think of more examples.

Functions	Polite reactions
expressing attention	“It was great. ” - “Oh, yes? ” - “I really enjoyed the play” .	s
expressing interest	“There was an excellent performance last night.” - “Oh, was	i
	there? ”	1
expressing emphatic	“It was a lovely party.” - “Yes, wasn’t it? ”	e
agreement		n
expressing pity	So you’re getting a divorce, are you? How sad!
expressing concern	Oh, it was his funeral yesterday, was it?	c
expressing surprise	“I opened the fridge and saw... a mouse!” - “A mouse?! In the	e
	fridge?”

 

Attention signals

Exclamations, interjections and fillers are necessary to demonstrate attention to your conversation partners. Exclamations are based on the use of pronouns, modals and set expressions Exclamations as well as interjections also help to emphasise different emotional reactions. Silence fillers, “allpurpose” nouns and hesitation devices perform the functions their names suggest, i.e. those of concealing embarrassment when hesitating, filling pauses to gain .me and the like. Consider the examples below illustrating different ways of reacting politely; think of more examples.

Functions	Polite reactions
praising/ attention / pity	Uh, how very exciting! / (How) interesting! /How very sad!	s
expressing interest/ surprise/ sympathy	What a beautiful sight! / What a surprise! /What a pity!	i
expressing delight/ concern/ disbelief	(That’s) Great! / (That’s) awful!/(That’s) impossible!	1
expressing surprise/ concern/ disbelief	You can’t be serious! It can’t be!/You must be very upset/ joking!	e
expressing sympathy/ surprise	Oh dear/my God! Oh no!/ Gosh!/ Wow! Phew! /Oh, come on’ No! ’ '	n
hesitating / expressing	um/ er...; a-yyy/the-eee/to-ooo//yes/uh-huh /mh-hmm
concern	Well, now, that is to say/ I see what you mean. Quite. Right OK.	c
gaining time / explaining	Well, you see... Oh, let me think for a moment. The point is	e

 

 

Task 19 Use the appropriate attention signals to react to the following:

 

a)   you re told that you won in a lottery (say, a cruise abroad) / your friend won books worth $100 in a recent prize draw;

b)   your friend tells you that he failed to join you yesterday because s/he missed the last train and had to spend the night at the station.

 

 

Task 20 Write a brief essay on the topic Display of emotions', get ready to make mini presentations.

To sum up the essentials of the unit, formulate brief recommendations for effective communica­tion between Ukrainians and their English speaking partners.

 

 

VARYING THE DEGREE OF FORMALITY

 

Effective communication largely depends on the appropriate strategy. Choosing their strategies interlocutors should first of all take into account the context (the setting, partners’ social status, gender, interrelations, psychological atmosphere etc.). Those factors determine the style speakers adopt, the necessity to conceal or reveal their intentions, to suppress emotions or lessen straightforwardness of their messages. Softening, the most widespread strategy, manifests itself in the conventional set of question formulae varying according to the degree of politeness. The formulae are commonly used to implicitly request, ask for information or express opinions.

 

Softening devices

in question formulae				in opinion phrases
probability phrases	verbs of thinking	right- phrases	mind- phrases	as/if- phrases	I’d- phrases	verbs of seeing, thinking	mind /view- phrases

The tactics is quite common for the following functions:

requesting, enquiring / inviting an opinion, suggesting, advising, asking permission etc.

Request formulae graded

 

Consider the examples below illustrating possible ways of asking questions politely. Think of situations where those phrases can be appropriate and give your own examples illustrating their use in different contexts.

degree		mind -phrases	wonder / think		modal verbs	probability phrases			tag
		I hope you don’t
******		mind (my asking)	but I wonder		if it might be /	at all possible for
					but would it be	me to...
*****			I was wondering		if you could	possibly
			Do you think		you could	possibly
					Could you	possibly
****	Would you mind if I...		Don’t you think	it might be an idea/ Might it be an idea/ Would it be If you could... I’d be			possible alright alright if I..
***	Do you mind if I... Do you mind my... ....ing		I wonder Do you think	You couldn  You could if you could... you could...			Is it alright if I...	could you? couldn \ you?
**	Anyone mind if I...		Have you ever thought of...				Do you happen to Have you... by any chance?	You haven’t ... have you?
*			I thought	I might... I’d like to... If I were you I’d...			I don’t seem to...
0	Hey,		I	need			some

 

Opinion phrases graded

 

Consider the examples below illustrating possible ways of expressing opinions politely. Think of situations where those phrases can be appropriate and give your own examples illustrating their use in different contexts.

degree	as/if- phrase	n. of opinion	vb. of thinking/ seeing	I’d- phrase	negative question
	As for me / as far as I’m concerned / know / can tell	From my point of view		I’d like to point out that... I’d say / think that...	Wouldn’t you agree / say that...
		In my view	I hope / believe / suppose / think / imagine that...	I’d just like to say that I think...
**	As I see it... If you ask me... / If I’m not mistaken	The point is	The way I look at it / see it /1 reckon /guess		Don’t you agree/ say that...

 

 

Task 21. Make the following questions more indirect; other polite variants could be possible. (Choose any 5 sentences).

 

1.       Do you mind my accompanying you to the evening meeting?

2.       Shall I ask our new assistant to join us?

3.       Can I borrow your car to get there?

4.       May I use the telephone over there?

5.       Can you tell me where the meeting takes place?

6.       Do you know what’s going on there?

7.       Do you know where the secretary is?

8.       Can you spare me a few minutes?

9.       Have you got an extra copy of the agenda?

10.       Is it possible for me to get draft proposals?

11.       Do you agree with the project considered?

12.       Isn’t the initial project more time-consuming?

13.       Still, do you prefer the latest variant?

14.       Is it the best solution?

15.       So you don’t insist on further discussion?

 

Task 22. Write a brief note (in the form of questions)

a)   suggesting a plan for improving the present-day school system;

b)   asking your teacher/ colleague to confirm the changes in the work you both are engaged in.

 

 

Task 23. Complete the table below by appropriately varying the phrase go home with respect to different functions and offer an approach to translating your versions into Ukrainian.

ordering/directing
prohibiting
instructing
requesting
enquiring about intentions
advising /warning
inviting
pressing an offer
asking permission
expressing an opinion
suggesting
inviting an opinion
asking for clarification