ДІЄСЛОВО
THE VERB
Дієсловом називається частина мови, яка означає дію або стан. Дієслово має особові (Finiteforms) і неособові форми (Non-Finiteforms).
Особові– це форми, які виражають особу, число, час, стан, спосіб і виступають у реченні у функції присудка. Дієслова в англійській мові можуть мати активний чи пасивний стан, дійсний, умовний чи наказовий спосіб.
Дійсний спосібозначає реальну дію, яка відбувається, відбувалася чи відбуватиметься:
Умовний спосібвиражає не реально виявлену дію, а лише бажану або можливу за певних умов:
If I had to live my life again, I'd make the same mistakes, only sooner. (Tallulah Bankhead)
Наказовий спосіб виражає наказ, спонукання, прохання, побажання і т. ін.:
To avoid criticism, do nothing, say nothing, be nothing.(ElbertHubbard)Неособові форми не мають звичайних форм особи, числа, способу і не бувають у реченні присудком, хоча і можуть входити до його складу. До неособових форм належать інфінітив (theInfinitive), герундій (theGerund) і дієприкметник (theParticiple).
За значенням і функцією в реченні дієслова можуть бути смисловими, допоміжними і напівдоміжнимими.
До смислових дієслів належать дієслова, які мають самостійне значення і вживаються в реченні у функції простого присудка:
I know Kung Fu, Karate, and 47 other dangerous words. (Jo Ramos)
Допоміжні – це ті дієслова, які не мають самостійного значення і допомагають утворювати складні форми дієслова. До них належать: to be, to have, to do, shall, should, will, would.
The future will be better tomorrow. (Dan Quayle)
The cost of living is going up and the chance of living is going down. (Flip Wilson)
Напівдопоміжні – це дієслова, що не мають повністю самостійного значення і можуть бути присудком лише в поєднанні з іншими дієсловами. До них відносяться дієслова-зв’язки та модальні дієслова.
Дієслова-зв’язки допомагають утворювати складений іменний присудок. Основним дієсловом-зв’язкою є дієслово tobe. Проте ряд інших дієслів таких, як: tobecome, toget, togrow та деякі інші можуть виступати в ролі дієслова-зв’язки:
America is a mistake, a giant mistake. (Sigmund Freud)
До модальних дієслів належать can, may, must, ought, shall, should, will, need, dare, а також to be, to have у значенні зобов’язання.Модальні дієслова виражають можливість, необхідність, бажаність здійснення дії і в сполученні з інфінітивом утворюють складний модальний присудок:
You can lead a man up to the university, but you can't make him think.(Finley Peter Dunne)
Основними формами англійського дієслова є:
1) інфінитив (theInfinitive);
2) минулий простий(неозначений ) час (thePastSimple (Indefinite) Tense);
3) дієприкметник минулого часу (thePastParticiple);
4) дієприкметник теперішнього часу (the Present Participle).
За способом утворення простого минулого часу і дієприкметника минулого часу дієслова в англійській мові поділяються на правильні (RegularVerbs) та неправильні (IrregularVerbs).
В англійській мові, як і в українській є перехідні (Transitive Verbs) і неперехідні дієслова (Intransitive Verbs).
Перехідні дієслова означають дію, що переходить боспрямовананапредмет або особу, тобто вони можуть мати прамий додаток: to buy, to ask, to translateта ін.
Неперехідні дієслова означають дію, що прямо не переходить на предмет чи особу. Такі дієслова не можуть мати прямого додатка: togo, toliveта ін.
Деякі дієслова можуть бути як перехідними, так і неперехідними: tomove, tostopта ін.
Дієслова to be і to have.
Дієслово tobe в англійські мові може вживатися як самостійне, допоміжне, дієслово-зв’язка та модальне.
На відміну від інших англійських дієслів, дієслово tobe може відмінюватися за особами і в запитальній або заперечній формі не потребує допоміжного дієслова:
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Відмінювання дієслова to beв Present Indefinite |
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Стверджувальна форма |
Питальна форма |
Заперечна форма |
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I ama student. He (she, it) is a student. We are students. You are students. They are students.
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Am I a student? Is he (she, it) a student? Are we students ? Are you students? Are they students? |
I am nota student He (she, it) is not a student We are not students. You are not students. They are not students.
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В усному мовленні перевага надається скороченим формам: I’m, he’s, she’s, it’s, we’re, you’re, they’re, heisn’t, theyaren’t.
Дієслово tohave може вживатись як самостійне, допоміжне, модальне.
Дієслово tohave має особливу форму в PresentIndefinite третьої особи однини he/she/ithas.
ЧАСИ ДІЄСЛОВА
TENSES
В англійській мові існує чотири групи часових форм дієслова: Simple (Indefinite) Tenses(прості (неозначені) часи), ContinuousTenses (тривалі часи), PerfectTenses (доконані або перфектні часи)таPerfectContinuousTenses (доконано-тривалі часи). Кожна з цих груп має свій теперішній (Present), минулий(Past) та майбутній(Future) час. Існує також особлива форма відносного часу, яка виражає майбутню дію відносно минулого часу – Future-in-the-Past.
ГРУПА ТЕПЕРІШНІХ ЧАСІВ
Утворення стверджувальних, заперечних та питальних форм
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PresentSimple |
Present Continuous |
PresentPerfect |
PresentPerfectContinuous |
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V, V-s
+ I (we, you, they) wait, work H e (she, it) waits.
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I//We/You/They do not (don’t) wait. He/She/It does not (doesn’t) wait.
? Do I/you/we/they wait? Yes, I do. / No, I don’t. Does he (/she, it) wait? Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t.
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am is + V-ing are
+ I am waiting. He (she, it) is waiting. We/ (you, they) are waiting.
- I am not (‘m not) waiting. He/She/It is not (isn’t) waiting. We (you, they) are not (aren’t) waiting.
? Am I waiting? Is he (she, it) waiting? Are we/you/they waiting? Yes, we/they are. No, we/ they aren’t. |
have has + V-ed/3*
+ I (we, you, they) have left. He (she, it) has left I have =I’ve; he has = he’s
- I//We/You/They have not (haven’t) left He/She/It has not (hasn’t) left.
? Have I (we, you, they) left? Yes, I have. No, I haven’t. Has he (she, it) left? - Yes, he has. No, he hasn’t. *Див. список неправильних дієслів |
have has + been + V-ing
+ I (we, you, they) have been waiting He (she, it) has been waiting
- I (we, you, they) haven not (= haven’t) been waiting long. He/She/It has not (hasn’t) been waiting long.
? Have I (we, you, they) been waiting long? - Yes, I have. No, I haven’t. Has he (she, it) been waiting long? Yes, he has. No, he hasn’t
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Правила написання дієслівних форм
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PresentSimple Теперішній простий (неозначений) час V-s |
PresentContinuous Теперішній тривалий час - ing |
PresentPerfect Теперішній доконаний час - ed |
PresentPerfectContinuous Теперішній доконано-тривалий час - ing |
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Всі дієслова, крім модальних, набувають закінчення -s або -es для 3 особи однини. He swims, she runs, it sleeps, the dog barks При цьому слід дотримуватися наступних правил орфографії: ● -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -o ►es I go – she goes I kiss – he kisses I wash - he washes we watch – he watches we fix – he fixes ● приголосний + y ► es, I copy - he copies
2. Якщодієслово закінчується на голосний+ y ► s, то 'y', незмінюється і додається закінчення –s, як і у всіх інших випадках. say – says buy – buys destroy – destroys
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1. Якщо дієслово в інфінітиві закінчується на make - making, dictate – dictating, advise - advising, argue – arguing
2. Якщо дієслово складається з одного складу і закінчується на один приголосний з попереднім коротким голосним звуком, то при додаванні закінчення -ing кінцевий приголосний подвоюється. sit – sitting,put – putting plan – planning, run - running Порівняйте: hop – hopping, але hope - hoping; tap – tapping але tape – taping
4. Якщо дієслово складається з двох складів і наголос падає на travel – travelling * (Am.E.) travel-traveling |
При утворенні -ed форм слід дотримуватися наступних правил орфографії: live - lived, dance – danced • приголосний + y ► i + ed, try - tried, modify - modified
*(Am. E.) travel –traveled
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див. «Present Continuous» |
Типи питальних речень
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PresentSimple Теперішній простий час |
PresentContinuous Теперішній тривалий час |
PresentPerfect Теперішній доконаний час |
PresentPerfectContinuous Теперішній доконано-тривалий час |
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Nick generally communicates with me by email or by phone. He sends me messages quite often.
He sends you messages quite often, doesn’t he? – Yes, he does. He doesn’t phone you every day, does he? - No, he doesn’t. Does he send you messages quite often? Doesn’t he send you messages every day? Does he call you every day or every week? How often does he send you messages? Who sends you messages so often? Примітка: Якщо у кінці репліки має бути коротке заперечне питання до ’I am”, то вживається форма ‘aren’t I?’ Порівняйте: I’m a bit late, aren’t I? Но:I’m not late, am I? |
Kelly is learning to drive at the moment. She is trying to park the car at the appointed space.
Kelly is parking her car, isn’t she?
– Yes, she is. Kelly is not driving to us, is she? – No, she isn’t. Is Kelly taking the car to her garage? Isn’t Kelly parking the car at the appointed space? Is she parking the car at the appointed space or is she taking it to the garage? Where is she parking the car? What is Kelly doing? Who is learning to drive at the moment? |
Anita has bought a notebook. She hasn’t sold her old computer yet.
Anita has bought a notebook, hasn’t she?
- Yes, she has. Anita hasn’t sold her old notebook yet, has she? - No, she hasn’t. Has Anita bought a new notebook? - Yes, she has. Has she sold her old computer yet? Hasn’t she sold her old computer yet? Примітка: У запитаннях, що починаються з when завжди вживається Past Simple, a не Present Perfect.
Порівняйте: They’ve bought a new luxury car. – Have they? When did they buy it?
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It has been raining for about two hours.
It has been raining for about two hours, hasn’t it? - Yes, it has. It hasn’t been raining all day today, has’t it? - No, it hasn’t. Has it been raining long? How long has it been raining? Since when has it been raining?
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Загальна таблиця випадків використання
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Present Simple
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Present Continuous
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Present Perfect
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Present Perfect Continuous
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always every day/week/month/year usually, generally very/quite often sometimes now and then occasionally (very) rarely never on Sunday at weekends
Примітка: зазвичайставляться переддієсловами, але після ‘am/is/ are’. Порівняйте: They usually eat out on Sunday. You are always busy. |
now at the moment at present these days nowadays currently (=at the present time) still always |
ever never just already yet not yet lately, recently so far this week, today since all this time |
How long....? for twenty minutes for half an hour for an hour for an hour and a half for hours for a few days, etc. since all day/night/morning (long) all this time |
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1. Постінийстанабоявище.
2.Звичайнідії, яківідбуваютьсяпостійно, часто, зрідка, інодііпод. Maxim usually waitsfor me after classes. When I get to the office, I always check up my email. Це звичайні явища. Таке буває завжди або відбувається доволі часто.
3.Загальновідомі істини і закони природи. The sun rises in the east. Ice melts when heated. Money is not the solution to every problem.
4. Розклад (потягів, літаків і под.), а також програми, (час початку фільмів, шоу, матчів). The train to Paris leaves at 10 a.m. Our next meeting is on Monday, as usual. It starts at 10 a.m.
5.З дієсловами, які не мають форми тривалого часу: - know, remember, forget, regret, understand, realize, believe; - want, wish, need, prefer, like, love, admire, hate; - have, own, belong to, include; - hear, see, smell, taste, etc.
6. У конструкції ‘Why don’t you/we ….?’ - Чому б вам /нам не ….?, коли ми пропонуємо щось зробити . Why don’t you contact Eric – he may be able to help?
7.У запитаннях, роз'ясненнях, інструкціях, наприклад, як пройти кудись або як приготувати якусь страву. - How do I get to your office? - When you get off the bus, you go straight on to the traffic lights, then you come to a bank, you turn left and then …..
8. У реченнях умови після if (якщо), unless (якщо тільки не)’, а також у додаткових реченнях часу після when, as soon as та інш. If Dennis studies hard, he will pass his exams. If Dennis doesn’t study hard, he won’t pass his exams. = Unless Dennis studies hard, he won’t pass his exams.
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1. Дія, яка відбувається зараз, у момент говоріння Look, Maxim iswaiting for you. Зараз, у цей момент, ми це бачимо.
2. Дія, яка відбувається не в цей момент, але цими днями, у теперішньому часі My brother is looking for a new job these days. Ищет работу не именно сейчас, но в эти дни.
3. Дія, яка запланована, підготовлена і має відбутися найближчим часом. Daniel is leaving for Paris tomorrow. Вона їде до Парижа завтра. Усе вирішено і вже підготовлено. Квиток куплено, речі складено.
4. Зі словом ‘always’, коли дія відбувається дуже часто, і це вас дратує. Уцьомувипадку ‘always’ можноперекласти , як‘завжди’. She is alwaysdoubting my words. You are always interrupting me. Т и завжди мене перериваєш, і це мене дуже дратує/злить.
5. Загальний стан справ, ситуація в цілому змінюється ( з кожним днем, роком, у наші дні). The climate on our planet is getting warmer and warmer every year. More and more people are choosing to spend their holidays abroad. |
1. Дії, якіпочалисяуминуломуіпродовжуютьсяутеперішньому, особливоздієсловами, якінеможутьвикористовуватисяутриваломучасі: be, have, hear, like, love, hate, know, understand, etc. Характерні «показники» часу: a) since, for; I have known Emily since we were at school. She has been the manager of our firm for 5 years.
b) ever, never, so far, yet, etc.; I’ve never been to Africa before. Це мій перший візит. Has he decided yet what to do?
с) а такожконструкції: It’s (This is) the first time I (we, you, he, etc.) have/has done smth. It’s the third time he has phoned her this evening. It’s the best comedy I’ve ever seen. It’s the most attractive offer we’ve ever had.
2. Дії, якісталисяуминулому, алеколиконкретноневідомоіценеважливо. Головне – те, що це сталося. Maxim hasleft. Невідомо і неважливо, коли Максим пішов. Головне – його тут немає. Типово для передачі новин, повідомлень про недавні події. Have you heard the news? Mary has got married. Our telephone number has changed.
3. Дії, якісталисянещодавно, ірезультатцихдій мибачимовтеперішньому Часто у поєднанні з just, recently, already, yet. I’ve just washed my hair. Результат: моє волосся мокре. Look, mum! We’ve picked a lot of mushrooms. Результат наявний: скоріш за все, повний кошик грибів. 4. Дії, яківідбулися today, this morning/week/month/year, за умови, що це ранок чи день і т.д. не завершилися до моменту мовлення. I haven’t seen our HR manager this morning. Have you? Важливо розрізняти: have gone to/ have been to/ have been in Have you ever been to Italy? – Yes, I’ve been there three times. Я побувала там тричі. З'їздила і повернулася додому. Where’re our new neighbours? -They’ve gone toItaly. Поїхали кудись до Італії і поки не повернулисяь. They have been in Italy for 3 months. Увесь цей час вони знаходяться /живуть там. |
1. Дії, які почалися у минулому і продовжуються у теперішньому, але, на відміну, від Present Perfect, акцентується на тривалості, тобто той, що говорить підкреслює, скільки часу це триває (for an hour/for a week, all morning, all this time).
Maximhasbeenwaitingfor you for half an hour.Він чекає певний проміжок .
Див.додаток 5 - Перелік дієслів, які не мають форм тривалого часу і вживаються у Present Perfect, a не у Present Perfect Сontinuous.
2.Пояснює результат нещодавної дії. The roads are wet. It has been raining all night long. Не дивно, що дороги мокрі. Дощ лив усю ніч безперестанку. You look so tired! – I’m. I’ve been driving all day. Your eyes are red and puffy. Have you been crying?
3. Передаєвідтінокнезадоволеннятароздратованості. Who has been taking money out of my purse? Це вже не вперше. Таке сталося двічі на цьому тижні.
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Не мають форми тривалого часу дієслова, що виражають
- почуття і емоції: like, love, adore, detest, dislike, prefer, hate;
- бажання і потреби: want, wish, desire, need, satisfy;
- приналежність, власність: have, own, possess, belong, etc.;
- сприйняття органами чуття: see, look, hear, sound, smell, taste, feel;
- згоду, здогадку, думку, сумнів, розумове сприйняття:agree, guess, believe/think/suppose, expect (that), doubt, forget, remember, recognize, remind, resemble, realise, know, notice, understand, etc.;
- дієслова на позначення стану або зміни стану:remain/stay (=continue to be), keep, seem/appear, prove;
- інші дієслова, які не можуть виражати дію або стан як процес:
be,consist of, contain, comprise, include, mean, matter, depend on, rely
on, require, cost, etc.
Дієслова, які можуть вживатися у тривалому часі, але при цьому їх значення змінюється
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Present Simple (стан) |
Present Continuous (дія) |
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smell
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It smells (пахне) of spring. It smells of freshly baked bread. |
She is smelling (нюхає) the roses. |
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taste |
It tastes (на смак) very good. |
I’m tasting (куштую) the soup to see if it is OK. |
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see |
I see (розумію) what you mean. I can see (бачити) a light in the distance. |
I’m seeing (зустрічаюсь) Sam this evening.
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look |
Angela doesn’t look (не виглядає) her age at all. You look (виглядаєш) so pretty in this dress. |
We’re looking (дивимося) at the photos.
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feel |
The scarf feels (на дотик) soft. I feel (відчуваю, думаю) we shouldn’t do it. |
I’m just feeling (торкаюсь, пробую на дотик) the quality of this towel. |
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have |
They have (мають) a beautiful house in Green Street.
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We are having a party (буде вечірка) this Saturday. * have breakfast/lunch/dinner; have a shower/a bath; have a party/ a meeting; have problems/difficulties |
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think
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What do you think (думаєш … - твоя думка) of the government?
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What are you thinking (думаєш) about, Vic? – About our journey to Italy. |
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expect |
I expect (думаю, гадаю) that you’re tired. Economists expect (вважають, очікують) that the rate of inflation will rise. |
We are expecting (очікуємо,чекаємо) Alison home any minute now. |
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fit |
This jacket fits (сидить на) you pretty well. The music fits (підходить) the words perfectly. |
The plumber is fitting (встановлює) the sink at the moment. |
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weigh |
Now the baby weighs (важить) more. |
The nurse is weighing (зважує) the baby. |
ГРУПА МИНУЛИХ ЧАСІВ
Утворення стверджувальних, заперечних та питальних форм
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Past Simple |
Past Continuous |
Past Perfect |
Past Perfect Continuous
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V-ed/2*
+ I/we/you/he/she/it/they waited I/we/you/he/she/it/they went
- I/we/you/he/she/it/they did not (didn’t) wait
I/we/you/he/she/it/they did not (didn’t) go
? Did I/we/ you/he/she/it/they wait? Yes, I did. No, I didn’t. Did I/we/ you/he/she/it/they go? Yes, they did. No, they didn’t. |
was + V-ing were + I/he/she/it was waiting We/you/they were waiting
- I he/she/it was not (wasn’t) waiting We/you/they were not (weren’t) waiting
? Was I/he/she/it waiting? Were I/we/you/they waiting? Yes, I was. No, I wasn’t. Yes, we were. No, we weren’t. |
had + V-ed/3*
+ I/we/you/he/she/it/they had reported I/we/you/he/she/it/they had written - I/we/you/he/she/it/they had not (hadn’t) reported I/we/you/he/she/it/they had not/hadn’t written
? Had I/we/you/he/she/it/they reported ?Yes, I had. No, hadn’t. Had I/we/you/he/she/it/they written? Yes, I had. No, I hadn’t. |
had + been + V-ing
+ I/we/you/he/she/it/they had been reporting
- I/we/you/he/she/it/they had not ( hadn’t) been reporting
? Had I/we/you/he/she/it/they been reporting? Yes, I had. No, I hadn’t.
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Типи питальних речень
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Past Simple |
Past Continuous |
Past Perfect |
Past Perfect Continuous
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Last summer Jacob visited his friend in Florida. They had a very good time together.
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It was early spring morning. Rachel was sitting in a pavement café and enjoying her first cup of strong coffee. |
By the time Mathew arrived, the lecture had already started, and the professor had outlined the planof their work. |
Rachel had been training for six months before she got a promotion.
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Did Jacob visit his friend in winter? - No, he didn’t. Did they have a good time together? -Yes, they did. |
Was Rachel sitting in her kitchen? - No, she wasn’t. Was she enjoying her first cup of coffee? -Yes, she was. |
Had the lecture started when Mathew arrived? -Yes, it had. Had the lecturer explained many rulesby the time Mathew arrived?-No, he hadn’t. |
Had Rachel been training forlong before she got a promotion? -Yes, she had. Had she been training for a year? -No, she hadn’t. |
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Did Jacob go to Florida or to Taxes? - He went to Florida.
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Was she sitting in a café or in a restaurant? - She wassitting in a pavement café. |
Had the professor explained many rulesoroutlined the planof their workby the time Mathew arrived? – He had outlinedthe planof their work |
Had she been training for a year or for six monthsbefore she got a promotion?- She had been training for six months. |
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Jacob visited his friend last summer, didn’t he? - Yes, he did. Jacob didn’t enjoy the company of his friend, did he? - Yes, he did.
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Rachel was sitting in a pavement café, wasn’t she? - Yes, she was. She wasn’tenjoying her coffee, was she? –Yes, she was. |
The lecturehadn’t started yet when Mathew arrived, had it? - Yes, it had. The professor had outlinedthe planof their workwhen Mathew arrived, hadn’the? - Yes, hehad. |
Rachel had been training for six months before she got a promotion, hadn’t she?-Yes, she had. Rachel hadn’t been training for a year before she got a promotion, had she? – No, she hadn’t. |
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When did Jacob visit his friend? - He visited his friend last summer. Wheredid Jacob go on holiday last summer? - Jacob wentto Florida. Who went to Florida last summer? - Jacob did. |
WherewasRachel sitting? – She was sitting in a pavement café. Who was enjoying a cup of strong coffee? - Rachelwas.
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Whathad the professor explained/said by the timeMathew came? – He had outlined the plan of their work. Whohad outlined the planof their workby the timeMathew came?– The professor had. |
How long had Rachel been trainingbefore she got a promotion? – She had been training for six months. Who hadbeen training for six months? - Rachel had. |
Випадки вживання минулих часів
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Past Simple |
Past Continuous |
Past Perfect |
Past Perfect Continuous |
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1. Дія, що відбулася в певний час в минулому. Час вказаний чи відомий з контексту. Yesterday I called Jason on the phone. We had a long talk.
2.Послідовні дії, які відбувались безпосередньо одна за одною в минулому. Helen went out, took a taxi and rushed to the office.
3.Звичні повторювані минулі дії. Last year they sent me an accountingevery month. Часто для вираження повторюваних дій або стану в минулому вживається usedto(раніше, бувало). Ron used to smoke heavily when he was at university. Now he doesn’t smoke at all. Nicole didn’t use to go out much until she met Paul. (Now she goes out very often.) Слова, з якими часто вживаєтьсяPastSimple: yesterday, last night/ week/ month/ year, three days/ weeks/ months ago, in 2002,How long ago ….?, When ….?, та ін. |
1. Дія, яка тривала в певний час в минулому. Час початку чи закінчення дії невідомий, у контексті не вказано. What were you doing in the office at 8 o’clock yesterday evening? We were still considering new commercial offers.
2.Дія, яка тривала в той час, як інша дія її перервала. Cameron was talking on the phone when Sheila came. While we were developing a new working model, the company decided to stop the project.
3. Дві чи більше дій, що тривали одночасно в певний час в минулому. While they were discussing the terms and conditions of the contract, the secretary was typing.
Слова, з якими часто вживаєтьсяPastContinuous: when, while, as, still, all morning/day /night,та ін.
|
1.Дія чи стан, які закінчились до іншої дії чи моменту в минулому. All the documents had been ready by 5’clock. I had already worked in marketing before I joined my present company.
2. Дія , яка завершилась в минулому та результати дії спостерігались теж в минулому.
3. Вконструкціях nosooner … than = hardly …when(ледве/не встиг …, як ….),які підкреслюють, що одна діявідбуласьвідразу, як тількивідбулась інша. Зазвичайутакихвипадкахвживаєтьсяінверсія. No soonerhad she reached the telephone than it stopped ringing. = She had no sooner reached the phone than it stopped ringing. Hardlyhad she hung up the phone when it rang again. = She had hardly hung up the phone when it rang again.
Слова, з якими часто вживаєтьсяPastPerfect: ever, never, just, already, before, after, till, until, when, by, by the time, hardly…when,no sooner … than, та ін. |
1. Дія, яка тривала в минулому і почалась раніше іншої дії, вираженоївPastSimple, іяка тривала протягом певногоперіодучасу, нащовказують зазвичай такі слова, як ‘since’, ‘for’таін. Alan had been lookingforanother job forabout a year before he finally found what he wanted. She had been cooking all day when Louis phoned her and said that they wouldn’t come.
2. Дія, яка тривала певний період часу в минулому та чиї результати спостерігались в минулому. It had been raining hard all night long. The roads were wet in the morning.
Слова, з якими часто вживаєтьсяPastPerfect: for, since, before, until, till, all night/ morning/ day (long),How long …?, Since when …?, та ін.
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ГРУПА МАЙБУТНІХ ЧАСІВ
Утворення стверджувальних, заперечних та питальних форм
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FutureSimple |
FutureContinuous |
FuturePerfect |
Future Perfect Continuous |
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+ I will type. = I’ll type He /She/It/We/You/They will type. = ’ll type.
- I/He She/It/We/You/They will not type = won’t type
? Will I/he/she/it type? Will we/you/they type? * Shall вживається в основному з I, weколи ви у ввічливій формі просите поради чи вказівок або пропонуєте свою допомогу, участь. Shall I help you with your luggage? Shall I do it right away? |
+ I will be typing. = I’ll be typing. He/She/It/ We/You/They will be typing. = ’ll be typing.
- I/He She/It/We/You/They will not be typing. = won’t be typing.
? Will I /he/she/it be typing? Will we/you/they be typing? |
+ I will have typed. = I‘ll have typed. He/She/It/We/You/They will have typed. ’ll have typed.
- I/He She/It/We/You/They will not have typed. = won’t have typed.
? Will I/he/she/it have typed? |
+ I will have been typing. = I’ll have been typing. He/She/It/ We/You/They will have been typing.= ‘ll have been typing.
- I/He She/It/We/You/They will not have been typing. = won’t have been typing.
? Will I/he/she/it have been typing? Will we/you/they have been typing? |
Типи питальних речень
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FutureSimple |
FutureContinuous |
FuturePerfect |
FuturePerfectContinuous |
|
We haven’t decided about our holiday yet. Most probably, we’ll go to Nice this summer.
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I’m sorry, Fred. We can’t meet at 10 o’clock. This time tomorrow morning, I’ll be taking my driving test. |
I expect she will have changed her mind by tomorrow. |
By next Friday, Samuel and his friends will have been cruising in the Mediterranean for about two weeks. |
|
Will you go to France on holiday this summer? – Yes, we will. Won’t you go toCanada this summer? – No, we won’t. |
Will you be taking your driving test at this time tomorrow morning? – Yes, I will. Won’t you be taking your driving test at 9 o’clock? – No, I won’t. |
Will she have changed her mind by tomorrow? - Yes, (I think) she will. Won’t she have changed her mind by tomorrow? - No, (I’m afraid) she won’t. |
Won’t they have been cruising in the Mediterranean for three weeks by next Friday? – No, they won’t. Will they have been cruising in the Mediterranean for about two weeks by next Friday? – Yes, they will. |
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You will go on holiday to France, won’t you? - Yes, (I think) we will. You won’t go on holiday to Сanada this year, will you? - No, we won’t.
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You’ll be taking your driving test at 10 o’clock tomorrow morning, won’t you? - Yes, I will. You won’t be taking your driving test at 9 o’clock tomorrow, will you? - No, I won’t.
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She will have changed her mind by tomorrow, won’t she? - Yes, (I think) she will. She won’t have changed her mind by tomorrow, will she? - No, (I’m afraid) she won’t.
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By next Friday, they will have been cruisingin the Mediterranean for about two weeks, won’t they?- Yes, they will. They won’t have been cruisingin the Mediterranean for a month by that time, will they? - No, they won’t. |
|
Where will you go on holiday this summer? - We’ll go to Nice this summer. When will you go to France? – This summer. Who will go with you to Nice this summer? – My friend Nadine will. |
What will you be doing at 10 o’clock tomorrow morning? - I’ll be taking my driving test. Who else will be taking a driving test at this time? – We will. |
Why will she have changed her mind by tomorrow?
Who will have changed her mind by tomorrow? |
How long will they have been cruising there by that time? - By that time, Samuel and his friends will have been cruising in the Mediterranean for about two weeks. Who will have been cruising in the Mediterranean for about two weeks - Samuel and his friends will. |
Випадки вживання майбутніх часів
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FutureSimple |
FutureContinuous |
FuturePerfect |
FuturePerfectContinuous |
|
tomorrow the day after tomorrow one of these days next week/month/year in a week in two days six weeks/ ten years, etc. from now
I don’t know/ doubt/wonder if/when (he will …) |
this time tomorrow this time next Friday/ week/ month/year
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by the time (he comes…) by 6 o’clock / January, etc. by then not …till/until before
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bythe time (he comes) for an hour more than two hours four years, etc. |
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Виражає стан, невизначену дію, яка відбудеться (чи не відбудеться) один або багато разів у майбутньому.
1.Здогади відносно подій, які можуть (не) статися у майбутньому. Той, хто говорить, висловлює свою думку, здогадується, сумнівається тощо. Тому пропозиції зазвичай починаються зі слів: I (don’t’) think, I’m sure, I’m afraid, I believe/ expect/, suppose/ doubt; certainly, perhaps, probably, maybe etc. Perhaps, life will be better fifty years from now. I’m afraid he won’t come tomorrow. I don’t think he will return in a few days. 2.Обіцянки, запевнення, попередження, погрози, сподівання тощо. Характерні такі слова як promise, swear, guarantee, I hope. Ring your mother or she will worry. Be quiet or I’ll send you out. (попередження) Of course, I’ll help you with this job. (обіцянка) I hope you’ll pass all your exams. (выражение надежды) 3. Висловлювання відносно станів або дій, які обов’язково відбудуться у майбутньому, і ми не можемо контролювати їх або вплинути на це. Spring will come soon. Tomorrow will be Friday. My sister Ann will be sixteen next month.
4. Рішення, які приймаються моментально, у момент говоріння I’ll buy her this handbag. I’ll pay in cash. Oh no, I’ll pay by credit card.
Will you tell me the time please? Will you explain how to do it? Will you stay with us for lunch? Will you have a cup of tea? ShallI /we…?. –
Shall I explain it to you? (= Do you want me to explain it to you?) Compare: Shall I help you in the kitchen? Will you help me in the kitchen?
Any suggestions? What shall we do tonight? - Shall we go to our favouritе café? (=Why don't we go to our favourite cafe?) What shall I do with these letters? - Leave them on my desk. ● у реченнях типу Let’s …, shall we? Let’s go, shall we? Let’s buy her these flowers, shall we? - OK. Let’s. ● після when, if*/whether (перекладається як ‘чи’) у реченнях, що виражають незнання, сумнів (I don’t know, I doubt, I wonder)і які відповідають на питання що? Наприклад: Я не знаю (що?), коли вони приїдуть. Cумніваюсь (у чому?), чи приїдуть вони взагалі і под. He doesn’t know when the manager will come. I doubt if they will support us. Не плутати з додатковими реченнями часу й умови! ● У таких реченнях замість майбутнього часу if, unless, when, as soon as, until, after, before тощо вживається теперішній час (the Present Simple or Present Perfect) I’ll call you as soon as the plane lands. We won’t begin until everyone arrives. Порівняйте: I doubt if they will give us a discount. (… чи дадуть нам знижку) – додаткове If (якщо) you give us a discout, we’ll buy more units.- додаткове умови |
Увага акцентується не на самому факті дії і/або коли вона відбудеться, а на її процесі.
1.Дія в її розвитку, яка відбуватиметься у певний час у найближчому або віддаленому майбутньому. This time next week we’ll be skiing in Courchevel. When you come to see me tomorrow I’ll be working in the garden. Don’t call her now. She will be sleeping.
2. Дія, яка відбудеться в майбутньому, оскількивона була спланована раніше або повинна статися у відповідності зприйнятимрішенням або встановленимпорядком(аналогічно the Present Continuous). I’ll be seeing Dan at the meeting, so I’ll certainly tell him about it. (Той, що говорить, пам’ятає, що у понеділок у них відбудуться збори, і він, напевне, побачить Дена) Professor Swan will be giving another lecture tomorrow morning. ( = isgiving)
3.Тривала дія, яка відбуватиметься протягом якогось часу і не обов’язково безперервно. Характерні такі позначення часу як all day tomorrow, all the time, the whole evening та ін. (= be going to be doing smth) I will be preparing for my final test all day tomorrow. (=I’m going to be working…) Will you be working all day?
4. Коли хочуть делікатно запитати когось про їхні плани на майбутнє. Той, хто запитує, уточнює доречно було б попросити або запропонувати щось зробити. Will you be using the photocopier for long? – Nо, why? – I urgently need to make a photocopy of this letter. Will you be passing the post office when you’re out?- Probably. Why? - I need some envelopes. Could you get me some? Порівняйте: Will you be staying for dinner? (ввічливо запитуємо про наміри людини) Will you stay for dinner? (запрошуємо на вечерю)
5. Форма запитання, коли хочуть запитати про щось особливо важливе. Наприклад, запитання When will you be seeing Mrs Blake? Звучить більш ввічливо і тактовно, ніж When will you see Mrs Blake?
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Важливо показати, що дія буде або не буде здійснена до певного моменту в майбутньому, оскільки до якогось певного часу буде отриманий результат. 1.Найбільш типові дієслова, що виражають завершеність finish, complete, retire та ін. They will have completed the new bridge by the end of the year. He won’t have retired till the year 2020. Hopefully, you’ll have learnt everything by the time you sit the exam.
2. З дієсловами, які не мають форми тривалого часу і тому не можуть вживатися уFuturePerfectContinuous. By the end of this year my son George will have been there for three years. (Сравните: George will have been living there for three years.) |
By the time you finish your work, I’ll have been waiting for more than an hour. By the time Paula gets her degree, she will have been studying law for five years. |
Інші способи вираження майбутнього часу
|
Конструкція ‘be going +to (do)” |
Present Continuous зі значенням майбутнього часу |
PresentSimple зі значенням майбутнього часу |
|
My sister says she is going to become a doctor. Це її бажання і прагнення. They are going to spend two weeks in Scotland. Вони намагаються, збираються. Have you phoned George? – Not yet, I’m going to phone him after work.Збираюсь зателефонувати/ зателефоную.
What’s happening? The train isn’t going to stop! Ми це бачимо, потяг не гальмує. Look at those black clouds – it’s going torain. Ми дивимося на небо і розуміємо, що ось-ось піде дощ. |
I’m not coming to the party next week; I’m taking an exam in Economics next Friday. I’m meeting my parents tomorrow morning. Не просто найближчим часом, відомо, коли саме.
Примітка: з дієсловами, що позначають рух, пересування (go, come, stay, drive, fly, travel, leaveта ін.) ‘be going to’ більш вживаним є PresentContinuous.
Jackie is coming to our house for tea this afternoon. I’m going to the market in a few minutes. |
1. Дїї, які відбудуться у майбутньому згідно розкладу (прибуття чи відправлення потяга, літака, корабля тощо) чи програми (напр.: початок сеансу кіно, матчу тощо). Часто з дієсловами start, begin, finish, arrive, leave, depart takeо off, land та ін.
What time does your plane arrive? Next term starts on 2 February. As usual, the meeting begins at 10 tomorrow morning. |
НАКАЗОВИЙ СПОСІБ
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD
У реченнях типу Come in! Sit down, please. Don’t smoke here. використовується наказовий спосіб дієслова. Ця форма використовується, коли ми просимо, радимо, пропонуємо, рекомендуємо, наказуємо, даємо розпорядження або забороняємо щось робити. Вона також вживається для вираження добрих побажань.
Please post this letter for me.
Try again, you can do it!
Let’s eat out tonight.
Let him do it again.
Wait here!
Take these papers to the director to sign.
Don’t ask me silly questions!
Enjoy your trip!
Наказові речення можуть бути стверджувальними і заперечними. Для їх утворення використовується інфінітив без частки to і допоміжне дієслово don’t у заперечних реченнях.
Walk down this street and then take the second turning on the right.
Don’t cross the street, go straight.
Іноді для підсилення у стверджувальних реченнях використовується допоміжне дієслово do.
Do be quiet!
Do come here!
Do та don’t також можуть використовуватись в коротких відповідях без основного дієслова.
Can I use your phone to call a taxi? – Do, please. It’s on the desk over there.
Shall I tell Kate what has happened? – No, don’t. I’ll tell her myself.
Речення з дієсловом у наказовому способі, як правило, не мають підмета. Однак, для того щоб було зрозуміло, до кого ми звертаємося, може використовуватись іменник або займенник.
Sit down, everybody!
Займенник you у наказовому реченні може використовуватись для додаткової виразності або мати відтінок роздратування.
You just sit down and keep silent!
Don’t you say a word! (не You don’t say a word!)
Якщо ми використовуємо в реченні прислівники always і never, вони вживаються перед дієсловом.
Always think before speaking.
Never touch it again!
Розділове питання для наказового способу утворюється за допомогою will you/would you/can you/could you?
Come here, will you?
Water the flowers, can you?
Для підсилення розпорядження чи наказу використовуються can’t you? і won’t you?
Stop talking, won’tyou?
Після заперечної форми використовується will you?
Don’t smoke here, will you?
Наказові речення, які вимовляються з низхідною інтонацією, звучать категорично, а з висхідною – більш ввічливо.
Hurry up!(
Come in, please. &
Однак, слід пам’ятати, що імперативна форма, навіть зі словом please, може звучати надто різко, тому замість імператива часто використовуються інші конструкції.
Could you help me, please?
I want you to just keep quiet for a moment.
You must hand your projects in by Friday.
You mustn’t speak to her in such a tone.
Якщо інструкція, наказ, рекомендація тощо адресовані до першої особи однини і множини (Давай я піду туди. Давайте зробимо це разом.) або до третьої особи однини і множини (Нехай він піде туди. Нехай вони зроблять це разом.), використовується конструкція з let, яка теж може розглядатися як наказовий спосіб.
Let me go there!
Let us (let’s) do it together.
Let him go there.
Let them do it together.
Заперечна форма таких речень :
Let himnot go there. (Порівняйте: Don’t let him go there).
Let us not do it together/ Let’s not do it together або Don’t let’s do it together.
Розділове питання утворюється за допомогою shall we?
Let’s do it together, shall we?
Ми можемо використовувати let’s самостійно зі значенням «так» в коротких відповідях на будь-яку пропозицію.
Shall we visit Ann this Sunday? – Let’s.
В мовленні часто використовуються звороти Let me see та Let me think зі значенням «Дай(те) подумаю».
What time shall we leave? – Let me see. Well, two o’clock will be OK.
ІМЕННИК
THE NOUN
Іменник – це частина мови, яка означає назви предметів, живих істот, речовин, явищ і абстрактних понять.
Іменники в англійській мові мають:
- два числа: однину і множину: dog (однина), dogs (множина);
- два відмінки: загальний і присвійний: student (загальний), student’s (присвійний);
Іменники, що називають живих істот, можуть мати чоловічий і жіночій рід.
Іменники поділяються на загальні (tree, anger) та власні назви (Tom, Ukraine). Загальні іменники мають конкретне (heat, house) або абстрактне значення (freedom,love).
Іменники в англійській мові, як і в українській, за своїм складом бувають прості, похідні та складні (складені).
Прості іменники (SimpleNouns) — це слова, які складаються тільки з одного кореня без префіксів і суфіксів, наприклад: apen, atown, milk, noise і т. ін.
Похідні іменники (DerivativeNouns), крім кореня, в своєму складі мають ще префікси або суфікси: ateacher , beginning , amistake.
Складні (складені) іменники (CompoundNouns) складаються з основ двох (рідко трьох) слів. Наголос у складних іменниках звичайно падає на першу основу: a 'schoolgirl, a 'railwayman (залізничник). Деякі іменники пишуться злито: chequebook, taxpayer, newspaper, flowchart, notebook; деякі – через дефіс: factory-worker, work-force, air-conditioning, tape-recorder; а деякі – окремо: employment law, insurance claim, adult education, growth rate.
Частооднеітежсловоз'являєтьсявтрьохвидахнаписання: роздільненаписання (laid back - розслаблений, упевнений, спокійний), написаннячерездефіс (laid-back) ізлитенаписання (laidback).
Складні слова утворюються з різних частин мови. Найбільш продуктивними є наступні моделі: іменник + іменник (roadman - учасник велогонки), іменник + прикметник (media-shy - людина, що випробовує страх перед камерою), прикметник + іменник (solar farm - територія з пристосуваннями, що перетворюють сонячну енергію на електричну), прислівник - дієслово (downlink - передача інформації з супутника на землю), іменник + дієприкметник (learning-disabled - нездатний вчитися). Складні слова часто відрізняються частиною мови від їх складових, наприклад, "passalong" (збільшення вартості послуг продюсера або того, хто надає послуги) - іменник, утворений дієсловом і прислівником, "ripstop" (високоміцна (про тканину)) - прикметник, утворений іменником і дієсловом, "stonewall" (перешкоджати діяти ухильно) - дієслово, утворене прикметником та іменником. Багато складних слів, утворених останнім часом, представляють велику різноманітність моделей, включаючи такі, як: adj. + noun: "right-brain" (права півкуля мозку); verb + noun: "teachware" (аудіовізуальна апаратура, яка використовується у викладанні); noun + prep.: "hand-on" (той, хто стимулює особисте втручання); noun + verb: "house-sit" (наглядати і жити в будинку, поки немає господарів).
Деякі слова вимагають пояснення для того, щоб "розшифрувати" їх значення, яке не складається із значень слів, що входять в склад, наприклад: "magnetschool" (школа з ускладненою програмою, організованою для залучення студентів), "pie-in-the-sky" (щось дуже віддалене, невідомо, чи відбудеться взагалі – про план, ідею), "languageplanning" (формулювання і здійснення програми стандартизації мови), "freedomofinformation" (свобода від втручання уряду в доступ до інформації, вільне проникнення).
За значенням іменники поділяються на загальні і власні.
Іменники загальні (Common Nouns) означають цілі класи предметів: a book, a house, a day і т. д.
Іменники власні (Proper Nouns) означають імена або назви одиничних осіб або предметів. Сюди належать особові власні імена — імена і прізвища людей (Магу, Jack London, Peter); географічні власні імена — назви країн, гір, річок, островів, морів, міст (Ukraine, Britain, the United States, London, the Thames); назви вулиць, площ, газет і т. п. (Trafalgar Square, the Daily Worker).
Власні імена пишуться з великої букви. На відміну від української мови, в англійській мові назви днів тижня, місяців і національностей також пишуться з великої букви: Sunday, Tuesday, April, November, an American, a Ukrainian і т. п.
Число іменників
В англійській мові форму множини можуть утворювати лише обчислювані іменники. До обчислюваних відносять іменники, що піддаються лічбі. Вони утворюють множину шляхом додавання до іменника у формі однини закінчення -s, яке вимовляється як [s] після глухих приголосних і [z] після дзвінких приголосних і голосних. Іменники, що закінчуються в однині на -s, -sh, -ch, -x, утворюють множину шляхом додавання до іменника у формі однини закінчення -es, яке вимовляється як [iz]. Також вимовляється як [iz] закінчення іменників, що утворили множину шляхом додавання закінчення -s до іменників, які у формі однини закінчуються на -se, -ce -ze, -ge:
[s] books, drops, coats, pilots, cups, accounts
[z] dogs, birds, battles, balls, chairs, firms
[iz] kisses, bushes, benches, roses,foxes, places, bridges, branches
Деякі іменники, які в однині закінчуються на -th[и] з попереднім голосним або дифтонгом, змінюють у множині вимову кінцевого звука [и] на [р] і закінчення множини-sвимовляється як [z]. Але якщо перед кінцевим -th стоїть приголосний або голосний, то змін не відбувається:
mouth – mouths path - paths bath – baths
death – deaths month – months
-y => -ies Іменники, що закінчуються у формі однини на -yз попереднім приголосним, утворюють множину шляхом додавання закінчення -s. При цьому кінцева y змінюється на i:
army – armies lorry – lorries baby – babies
spy – spies company – companies lady – ladies
-y => -ys Якщо кінцевій y передує голосний, то при додаванні закінчення -sтакої зміни не відбувається:
valley – valleys boy – boys day – days
donkey – donkeys guy – guys way – ways
-o => -oes Іменники, що закінчуються в однині на -oз попереднім приголосним, утворюють множину за допомогою закінчення -es:
hero– heroes potato– potatoes tomato– tomatoes
veto– vetoes echo– echoes embargo– embargoes
-o => -os Проте деякі іменники на -oутворюють множину за допомогою закінчення -s. Це відбувається:
1) Якщо перед кінцевою -o в однині стоїть голосний або це слово іншомовного походження, в тому числі музичні терміни італійського походження:
bamboo– bamboos embryo– embryos casino – casinos
kangaroo – kangaroos stereo – stereos radio – radios
cuckoo – cuckoos patio – patios tatoo – tatoos
kimono – kimonos studio – studios taboo – taboos
oratorio – oratorios piano – pianos zoo – zoos
concerto – concertos soprano – sopranos solo – solos
contralto – contraltos folio – folios trio – trios
2) Якщо це слово є абревіатурою (скороченням):
kilos (= kilograms) memos (= memoranda)
photos (= photographs) autos (= automobiles)
logos (= logotypes, logograms) limos (=limousine)
3) Із деякими власними назвами:
Eskimo – Eskimos Filipino – Filipinos
-o => -o(e)s Деякі іменники на -oможуть мати у множині як закінчення -es, так і закінчення -s
commando – commando(e)s cargo – cargo(e)s
mosquito – mosquito(e)s grotto – grotto(e)s
tornado – tornado(e)s volcano – volcano(e)s
-f/ -fe => -ves У деяких іменниках, що закінчуються у формі однини на-fабо
–fe,у множині fзмінюється на vідодаєтьсязакінчення -es:
calf – calves half – halves knife – knives leaf – leaves
life – lives loaf – loaves self – selves shelf – shelves
thief – thieves wolf – wolves wife – wives elf – elves
sheaf – sheaves
-f/ -fe => -fs В інших іменниках, що закінчуються в однині на-f або –fe,у множині додається закінчення -s:
chief – chiefs roof – roofs safe – safes cuff – cuffs
muff – muffs gulf – gulfs cliff – cliffs proof – proofs
belief – beliefs
-f => -fs/-vesДеякі іменники на -f можуть мати обидва варіанти утворення множини, як на -fs, так і на -ves:
wharf – wharves/ wharfs
hoof – hoofs/ hooves
scarf – scarves / scarfs
handkerchief – handkerchiefs/ handkerchieves
dwarf – dwarfs/ dwarves
-z => -zzes Іменники, що закінчуються на -zподвоюють zперед закінченням -es: quiz– quizzes, whiz (whizz) – whizzes
Деякі іменники мають особливі форми у множині:
man – men woman – women mouse – mice goose – geese
foot – feet tooth – teeth child – children ox – oxen
Частина іменників, запозичених з латинської та грецької мов, зберегли притаманні цим мовам форми утворення множини. Деякі з цих іменників мають також адаптовані англійською мовою варіанти утворення множини.
-a => -ae
antenna – antennae/ antennas formula – formulae/ formulas
-ex, -ix => -ices
apex – apices/ apexes appendix – appendices/ appendixes
matrix – matrices/ matrixes index – indіces/ indexes
-is => -es
analysis – analyses thesis – theses basis – bases
crisis – crises diagnosis – diagnoses hypothesis – hypotheses
oasis – oases parenthesis – parentheses
-um => -a
agendum – agenda millennium – millennia/ millenniums
datum – data curriculum – curricula/ curriculums
medium – media/ mediums
maximum – maxima memorandum – memoranda/
memorandumus
spectrum – spectra symposium – symposia/ symposiums
bacterium – bacteria sanatorium – sanatoria/ sanatoriums
-us => -era, -ora
genus – genera corpus – corpora/ corpuses
-us => -i
cactus – cacti/ cactuses terminus – termini
nucleus – nuclei radius – radii
stimulus – stimuli syllabus – syllabi/ syllabuses
-eau => -eaux
bureau – bureaux/ bureaus plateau – plateaux/ plateaus
Однаковуформуводниніімножинімаютьіменники, щопозначаютьнаціональністьізакінчуютьсяназвук [z] або [s]: a hundred (one) Vietnamese, Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Swiss.
Однакову форму в однині і множині мають такі іменники:
(one) sheep (is) – (two) sheep (are)
deer – deer
crossroads – crossroads
swine – swine/swines
craft – craft (морське або річковесудно)
spacecraft–spacecraft
aircraft – aircraft
works – works (завод або фабрика)
means – means
barracks – barracks
headquarters – headquarters
series – series
species – species
offspring – offspring
(one big) fish – (3 huge) fish
(fishesвживається для позначення різних видів риб).
Деякі іменники, що позначають види риб, не змінюють свою форму у множині: Somekindsoffishdonotnormallychangeintheplural:
carp–carp cod–cod mackerel–mackerelpike–pike
plaice–plaice salmon–salmon squid –squid/ squidstrout–trout
Порівняйте:
crab– crabs, eel– eels, sardine – sardines, shark– sharks.
У складних іменниках, що утворилися з двох або більше слів, які пишуться окремо, в основному форму множини приймає головний іменник:
brother-in-law – brothers-in-law grant-in-aid – grants-in-aid
looker-on – lookers-on passer-by – passers-by.
Якщо ж до складу іменника увійшли слова з інших частин мови, то форму множини приймає останнє слово:
forget-me-not – forget-me-nots grown-up – grown-ups.
Якщо першим елементом у складному іменнику є слово manабоwoman, то обидва слова приймають форму множини:
woman-driver–women-drivers man-servant – men-servants.
Але якщо акцент робиться на інший елемент, то слова manабоwomanне змінюються:
man-eater – man-eaters, man-hole – man-holes, woman-hater – woman-haters.
Іменник pennyмає форму множини pence, якщо ми говоримо про суму грошей, і форму pennies, якщо мова йде про окремі монети:
Thefareisnowtwentypence.
When you drop change at a vending machine, the pennies will fall nearby, while all other coins will roll out of sight.
Як вже згадувалось на початку цього розділу, необчислювані іменники не мають форми множини, окрім випадків, коли вони переходять до розряду обчислюваних:
I love French wines, especially the white wines.
Не мають форми множини такі іменники:
accommodation, advertising, advice, applause,baggage, brainstorming, camping, cash, chalk, change (здача), cloth (тканина), clothing, courage, crockery, cutlery,damage (пошкодження, збитки), employment, equipment, flour, food, fruit,furniture, gossip (плітки), hair (волосся), hardware, information, insurance, knowledge, laughter, legislation, lightning, linen,macaroni, merchandise, money, news, parking, pepper, postage, progress, research, rice, salt, sand, scenery, seaside, shopping,soap,software, spaghetti, thunder, traffic, training, transport, travel, trouble, twilight, underwear, weather, work, etc.
Для переданнякількості з необчислюваними іменниками можуть використовуватись такі слова:
a bit/item/piece of news,a barof chocolate/ soap, a drop of oil/ water, a grain of sand, a pieceof cake/ paper/advice/ information/ furniture/ chalk, a glass/ bottleof water, ajarof jam/ honey, aclove/ bulb of garlic, a rasherof bacon, a packetof rice/tea, a loaf/sliceof bread, a potof yoghurt/ honey, a pot/ cupof tea, a kiloof meat, a tubeof toothpaste, a canof soda, a tin of tuna, a cartonof milk, a bowlof sugar/ soup, a sheet of paper/ metal, a ball of string, a blade of grass, a heap of earth, a lump of sugar/ coal, etc.
Деякі іменники мають закінчення множини, проте узгоджуються з дієсловом в однині. До них належать:
– назви навчальних дисциплін на -ics: physics, mathematics (maths), phonetics
– назви деяких видів спорту й ігор: gymnastics, athletics, bowls, billiards, dominoes, darts, draughts (checkers), chess,etc.
– назви деяких хвороб: diabetes, measles, mumps, etc.
Деякі іменники вживаються (часто в певних значеннях) лише у множині:
annals (літописи), arms (зброя), binoculars, bellows, belongings, board (рада директорів), brains (розумові здібності), breeches, cattle, clothes, congratulations, contents, dregs, earnings, glasses (окуляри), grapes (виноград), goods, greens (зелень, овочі),headquarters, jeans, makings, manners (звичаї), massmedia, means, oats,odds,outskirts (околиці), pants, personnel, pincers, pliers, police, poultry (свійська птиця), premises (нерухомість), proceeds, pyjamas (butapyjamatop/jacketis …), reins (віжки), refreshments, remains,riches (багатство),scales, scissors, shears,spectacles, stairs (сходи), statistics (статистичні дані), steps (драбина, стрем'янка), suburbs (передмістя, околиці), surroundings, takings (бариші, прибутки), thanks, tights, tongs, trousers,valuables,winnings, works, etc.
Проте потрібно пам’ятати, що деякі іменники, які мають декілька значень, в інших значеннях можуть вживатись в однині. До іменників, що мають різні значення в однині й множині,належать:
аir(повітря) – airs (ефект), ash (попіл) – ashes (рештки), cloth(тканина) – clothes (одяг), compass (компас) – compasses (циркуль), content(зміст) – contents (вміст), custom(звичай) – customs (митниця), damage(пошкодження) – damages (збитки), drawer(шухляда) – drawers (кальсони), fund(фонд) – funds (кошти), glass(скло) –glasses (окуляри), hair(волосся) – hairs (волосини), look(виляд) –looks (риси), manner(спосіб) –manners (звичаї), minute(хвилина) –minutes (протокол), pain(біль) –pains (зусилля), relation(ставлення) –relations (відносини), saving(економія) –savings (заощадження), scale(шкала) –scales (ваги), spectacle(спектакль) –spectacles (окуляри), spirit(дух) –spirits (настрій), step(крок) –steps (сходи), wood(деревина) –woods (ліс), work(робота) – works (завод), etc.
Іменникpeopleзі значенням “люди” вживається лише у формі множини, але якщо це слово має значення “нація, народ”, воно може вживатись як в однині, так і у множині:
Most people are about as happy as they make their mind up to be. (Abraham Lincoln); Customs similar to this one are found among many peoples of the world.
Збірні іменники можуть узгоджуватися з дієсловом як в однині, так і у множині, в залежності від значення. Якщо мова йде про групу в цілому, іменник вживається в однині. Якщо мова йде про індивідів, що складають групу, то іменник вживається у множині. До таких іменників належать:audience, class, clergy, committee, company, congregation, crew, crowd, family, gang, government, group, jury, public, staff, team, union, etc.
The team were all training hard for that match. / The team was ready for the match.
Іменники, що означають фрукти й овочі, мають в основному форму множини, якщо вони вживаються в загальному значенні, та форму однини, якщо вони в подрібненому стані є складовою супів, салатів, пирогів, тощо:
Tomatoes are expensive this year.
There is too much carrot in this soup.
Eat plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables. (But: the fruits of nature, the fruits of your labour).
Такі ж слова, як beans, peas, raisins, grapes, prunes тощо, вживаються частіше всього у множині:
There are toomanyprunesinthispie.
Іменник узгоджується з дієсловом в однині, якщо мова йде про кількість, тривалість, відстань як єдине ціле:
Three hundred pounds is enough to buy a ring.
Якщо після виразів a/the majority of, a number of, a couple of, a group of, a lot of, plenty of, all (of), some (of), the rest of стоїть іменник у множині, то він узгоджується з дієсловому множині:
A lot of people are afraid to say what they want. That's why they don't get what they want. (Madonna)
Але the number of+ іменник у множині узгоджується з дієсловом в однині:The number of people watching you is proportional to the stupidity of your action.
Утворення множини іменників
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Спосіб утворення множини |
Приклад утворення |
Примітка |
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За допомогою закінчення |
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+ -s |
a set – sets a name – names a boy - boys |
[s] після глухого приголосного АЛЕ: mouth – mouths [z] після дзвінкого голосного і після приголосного |
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(-ge; -ce; -ze; -se;) + -s |
a place – places a prize – prizes a horse - horses |
[iz] АЛЕ: a house – houses |
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(-s; -ss; -sh; -ch; -x;) + -es |
a bus – buses a box – boxes a class – classes a church - churches |
[iz] |
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-o + -es |
a torpedo – torpedoes a hero – heroes a potato - potatoes |
АЛЕ: photos, videos, kilos Подвійний варіант: a flamingo – flamingos (es) a volcano – volcanos (es) |
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-y + -s = ies (після голоснго) |
a city – cities a spy - spies |
АЛЕ: Kennedys, the two Germanys |
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(-ay; -ey; oy;) + -s = ys |
a ray – rays a journey – journeys |
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-f (-fe) + -s = ves [vz] |
a wife – wives a half – halves a life - lives |
АЛЕ: roofs, beliefs, chiefs, safes Подвійний варіант: dwarfs (ves) карлик, hoofs (ves) копито , handkerchiefs (ves) хусточка АЛЕ: a still life (натюрморт) – still lifes (натюрморти) |
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+ -en |
an ox – oxen a child – children a brother – brethren (реліг.) |
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Інші способи утворення |
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Зміною кореневого голосного |
a man – men a foot – feet a mouse - mice |
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Збіг форм однини і множини |
a fish – two fish a Chinese – many Chinese a sheep - three sheep a means – numerous means |
АЛЕ: a fish – fishes (у значенні «різноманітні види риб»)
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Іменники латинського походження на: -us = i |
a stimulus (стимул) – stimuli a bacillus (бацила) – bacilli |
АЛЕ: a bonus – bonuses, a virus – viruses Подвійний варіант: a radius – radiuses(radii) |
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-a = ae
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an alumna – alumnae a larva (личинка) – larvae |
АЛЕ: an area – areas, a diploma – diplomas, an arena – arenas
Подвійний варіант: a formula – formulas(в загальному значенні) formulae (в матем.) |
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-um = a |
a stratum(шар геог.) – strata an agendum – agenda |
АЛЕ: an album – albums, a chrysanthemum – chrysanthemums Подвійний варіант: a memorandum - memorandums, memoranda |
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(-ex; -ix;) = ces |
an index – indices (матем.) an appendix – appendices (в книгах) |
АЛЕ: indexes (в книгах), appendixes (в медицині)
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Іменники грецького походження на: -s = es |
a thesis – theses a crisis – crises |
АЛЕ: a metropolis – metropolises
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-n = a |
a criterion – criteria a phenomenon - phenomena |
АЛЕ: a demon – demons, an electron – electrons |
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Складені іменники |
a breakdown – breakdowns, an assistant director – assistant directors, an Englishman - Englishmen |
АЛЕ: a mother-in- law – mothers-in- law, a passer-by – passers-by, a woman doctor – women doctors
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Скорочення |
p. (page) – pp. (pages) Mr. (Mister) – Messrs MP (Member of Parliament) – MPs VIP – VIPs |
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Класифікація іменників за ознакою обчислювані/необчислювані
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Обчислювані Countable |
Необчислювані Uncountable |
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Означають предмети, які можна порахувати |
Означають предмети і поняття, які не можна порахувати |
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Присутні форми однини і множини |
Немає форми множини |
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Поєднуються з: |
Не поєднуються з числівниками. |
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числівниками |
seven days |
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a/the |
a student / the student(s) |
Поєднуються з : |
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the |
the meat |
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займенниками: many a lot of / lots of (a) few some every |
many questions a lot of cars / lots of cars a few seats / few seats some ideas every man |
займенниками: much a lot of / lots of a little some all |
much money a lot of time / lots of time a little salt / little salt some consolation all the butter |
Випадки переходу необчислюваних іменників у обчислювані
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Дійсний іменник означає предмет із даної речовини |
glass – скло iron - залізо |
a glass – склянка an iron - праска |
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Дійсний іменник означає сорт, вид чи пропорцію речовини |
coffee - кава |
a coffee – сорт кави або чашка кави |
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Абстрактний іменник конкретизується |
light - світло |
a light – лампа |
Іменники, які узгоджуються із дієсловом в однині
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Дійсні |
Абстрактні |
Ряд слів на -s |
Назви дисциплін на -ics |
Назви ігор на -s |
Назви хвороб на -s |
Власні назви |
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sugar copper china water |
advice information poetry progress |
news gallows summons
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gymnastics statistics mathematics politics |
billiards darts dominoes draughts |
measles mumps rickets shingles |
Athens the UN the USA |
Іменники mathematics, statistics і т.п. вживаються з дієсловом у множині, якщо вони не означають наукову дисципліну.
Mathematicsis not taught here. – Тут не вчать математику.
His mathematicsare poor. – У нього слабкі знання з математики.
Іменники, які узгоджуються із дієсловом у множині
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Назви парних предметів і одягу |
Іменники, у яких немає форми однини чи вона має інше значення |
Деякі узагальнені іменники |
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scissors |
scales |
binoculars |
clothes |
tights |
pants |
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оdds |
proceeds |
goods |
whereabouts |
wages |
contents |
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сattle |
police |
gentry |
vermin |
clergy |
people |
Рід іменників
Рід іменників в англійській мові розрізняється за значенням. До чоловічого роду відносяться назви осіб чоловічої статі. До жіночого роду відносяться назви осіб жіночої статі.
actor – actress emperor – empress prince – princess
bachelor – spinster sir – madam hero - heroine
duke – duchess monk – nun steward - stewardess
conductor – conductress host – hostess manager – manageress
earl – countess landlord – landlady god – goddess
policeman – policewoman heir – heiress king – queen
lad – lass father – mother son – daughter
boy – girl husband – wife uncle – aunt
bridegroom – bride nephew – niece gentleman – lady
godfather – godmother stepfather – stepmother father-in-law – mother-in-law male – female barman – barmaid masseur – masseuse etc.
Проте значна частина іменників має однакову форму для позначення осіб чоловічої і жіночої статі: cousin, doctor, teacher, student, neighbour. Коли ж потрібно вказати на стать особи або тварини, то додається слово, яке вказує на стать: aboy-friend – agirl-friend, womanastronaut, he-goat – she-goat.
Деякі назви тварин мають різні родові форми, хоча, звичайно, замінюються займенником it:
bull – cow gander – goose ram - ewe tiger – tigress
cock – hen stag – doe drake – duck leopard – leopardess
dog – bitch stallion – mare boar – sow lion – lioness
Рід іменників в англійській мові
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Спосіб відображення роду |
Чоловічий рід |
Жіночий рід |
Середній рід |
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Лексичне значення |
man brother king bull |
woman sister queen cow |
traffic pumpkin hotel dog |
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Особові займенники |
he |
she |
it |
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Суфікси: -er; -ess; -ine / ina; -ette |
widower tsar host bachelor |
widow tsarina hostess bachelorette |
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Утворення складених іменників |
a boyfriend a businessman a he-cook a tom-cat a male nurse a surgeon |
a girlfriend a businesswoman a she-cook a tabby-cat a nurse a woman surgeon |
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Відмінки іменників
В англійській мові існує лише два відмінки: загальний і присвійний. Оскільки в загальному відмінку немає спеціальних закінчень, його взаємозв’язок з іншими словами визначається місцем в реченні.
Присвійний відмінок передає значення приналежності. В присвійному відмінку вживаються в основному іменники - назви істот.
Присвійний відмінок однини утворюється за допомогою апострофа і закінчення -s: myfather’sfriend, Tom’sbike.
Якщо іменник в однині закінчується на -sабо -x, то присвійний відмінок утворюється в основному за допомогою лише апострофа, хоча варіант -’s також можливий: Charles’ book, theboss’ car.
У множині присвійний відмінок утворюється за допомогою лише апострофа: girls’ school, neighbours’ dog. Якщо ж іменник у множині не має закінчення –s, то присвійний відмінок утворюється за допомогою апострофа і закінчення -s: children’splayground.
Окрім іменників - назв істот, форму присвійного відмінка можуть мати іменники, що означають проміжок часу та відстань; назви планет, країн, міст, кораблів; слова country, town, city, world, ocean, river, а також збірні іменники: amonth’ssalary, Saturn’srings, London’smuseums, Ukraine’sterritory.
Поряд з присвійним відмінком для передачі приналежності вживається іменник у загальному відмінку з прийменником of: Mary’sroom = theroomofMary.
Відмінок іменника. Форми та особливості вживання присвійного відмінку
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Відмінок
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Загальний відмінок Common |
Присвійний відмінок Possessive |
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Загальне значення Немає спеціальних закінчень Вказує на незалежне вживання іменника |
Значення приналежності або опису Закінчення –‘s (-‘) Вживається переважно з іменниками при означенні істот |
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a girl Irak |
a girl’s Irak’s oil deposits |
Форми присвійного відмінку
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Однина |
Множина
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-’s |
-’ |
-’s
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a boy’s toys a sheep’s skin |
boys’ toys
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workers’ tools sheep’s skins children’s toys |
Якщо ім’я на –sє старовинним, іноземним чи класичним, до нього додається тільки апостроф, що читається як [iz]: Hercules’ labours.
Особливості вживання присвійного відмінку
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Значення |
Приклади |
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Сумісне володіння чимось |
Peter and Robin’s room
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Окреме володіння |
Peter’s and Robin’s room |
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У функції обставини місця (слова shop, office, house, school, hospital і т.п. пропускаються) |
at the cleaner’s (shop), at my aunt’s (house), at the dentist’s (office), at Madame Tussaud’s (museum) |
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В значенні «один з» (з прийменником of) |
He is an old business client of my uncle‘s. |
Вживання іменників - назв неістот у присвійному відмінку
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Випадки вживання |
Приклади |
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Збірні іменники |
the company’s office, government’s views |
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Іменники, що означають час, відстань і вартість (зі словом worth) |
a month’s holiday, a dollar’s worth |
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Назва країн, міст, пір року, місяців днів тижня |
Italy’s museums, April’s projects |
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Слова country, city, world, nature, earth, sun, moon, ship, play і т.п. |
the play’s title, the country’s traditions |
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У деяких стійких виразах |
for conscience’s sake, at one’s wit’s end |
Іменники у функції означення
Як було зазначено вище, іменники в присвійному відмінку, а також іменники в загальному відмінку з прийменником ofможуть вживатися для означення іншого іменника: Bob’sbicycle, thebicycleofBob.
Означенням до іншого іменника може також виступати іменник у загальному відмінку без прийменника. У цій ролі іменник, як правило, вживається в однині, навіть якщо йому передує числівник: athreeroomflat, atwodaytrip.
АРТИКЛЬ
THEARTICLE
В англійській мові існує два види артиклів – неозначений (TheIndefiniteArticle) та означений (TheDefiniteArticle).
Неозначений артикль вживається, коли йдеться про будь-який предмет з усього класу однорідних предметів.
Означений артикль вживається, коли йдеться про конкретну особу або предмет, виділений з усіх осіб або предметів даного класу.
Неозначений артикль має дві форми: a [ə] - вживається перед словами, що починаються з приголосного звука (а не букви): apen, adog, aUFO, aEuropean, aone-armedbandit;an [ən] - перед словами, що починаються з голосного звука: anactor, anhonorarium, anFMradio, anMP, anumbrella.
Означений артикль має одну форму the і вимовляється як [ði:] перед словами, що починаються з голосного звука (а не букви): theair, theapple, theEEC,; та як [рə] перед словами, що починаються з приголосного звука: theday, theplace,theUN, theworld.
Вживання неозначеного артикля.
Неозначений артикль a/anне вживається перед іменниками у множині і, як правило, не вживається з необчислюваними іменниками.
A/anвживається:
- із обчислюваними іменниками в однині, коли вони вживаються у загальному значенні:
Onlyageniuscanplayafool. (MichaelRapaport)
An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind. (Gandhi)
У множині артикль відсутній:
What luck for rulers that men do not think.
- коли певна особа, місце або предмет згадується вперше і не конкретизується, тобто коли співрозмовник або читач ще не знають, про кого або що конкретно йтиме мова:
Theyliveinanoldhouse.
При їх подальшому згадуванні вживається означений артикль the або займенники it, he, him, she, her:
GivemeamuseumandI'llfillit. (Pablo Picasso)
Theyliveinanoldhouse. Itwasbuiltin the last century.
Якщо ж мова йде не про певну особу або предмет, а про будь-яку особу або предмет, які можна віднести до певного типу, то при повторному згадуванні знову вживається a/anабо займенник one:
Getmeacar. Iwantacar.
- коли обчислюваний іменник в однині виконує номінативну функцію і виступає представником свого класу:
Athroneisonlyabenchcoveredwithvelvet. (Napoleon Bonaparte)
Abear (anybear, allbears) isadangerousanimal.
Проте a/anне вживаються, якщо згадується про місцезнаходження предмета, особи або тварини. В таких випадках іменник вживається у множині або з означеним артиклем the:
PenguinsliveintheAntarctic.
ThepenguinlivesintheAntarctic.
У множині артикль або інший детермінант (визначальне слово) відсутні: Exceptionsalwaysoutnumberrules (Murphy'sLaws)
Bearsaredangerousanimals.
- з іменником-предикативом після tobe, якщо відсутній інший детермінант:
Boredomisagreatmotivator. (UmaThurman)
Але якщо предикатив означає конкретний предмет або особу, то перед ним вживається означений артикльthe:
ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt. (MotherGooseRhymes)
- перед іменником-прикладкою:
John, afriendofmybrother, graduated from the university last year.
Проте якщо іменник-прикладка означає конкретний предмет, особу, або ж загальновідому людину, то перед ним вживається означений артикльthe:
Shakespeare, theoutstandingBritishpoet, wasbornin1564 inStratford-on-Avon.
Daniel Smith, the author of thesensational article in The Washington Times, gave a press conference.
У множині артикль або інший детермінант відсутні:
JohnandTom, managersofourdepartment, graduatedfromthesameuniversity.
- після звороту thereis (therewas, therewillbe, etc.) перед обчислюваними іменниками:
There is a right way, a wrong way, and my way of doing things. (misquote from“The Caine Mutiny”)
- перед деякими словами, що виражають кількість: a few - кілька, декілька; a little - трохи, небагато; a greatmany, a goodmany - дуже багато; acouple– пара; a (або one) dozen – дюжина; a (або one) score - два десятки:
Canada: Afewacresofsnow. (Voltaire)
- перед деякими числівниками поряд з one: a (або one) hundred, a (або one) thousand, a (або one) million.
It's better to live one day as a lion, than a hundred as a sheep.
Але:1100 =onethousand, onehundred
- перед порядковими числівниками у значенні “ще один, інший”:
Autumnisasecondspringwheneveryleafisaflower. (AlbertCamus)
- перед деякими дробами поряд з one: a (або one) third, a (або one) quarter
- перед half, якщо йому передує ціле число: akiloandahalfабо oneandahalf kilos. Але: half a kilo.
- у виразах, що вказують на відношення до ваги, ціни, відстані, частотності, тощо:fivehryvnasakilo, 100 kilometersanhour, twiceaweek, 20padozen, 30 milesagallon. У таких випадках a/an=per.
- з необчислюваними іменниками, що вказують на порцію чого-небудь: twocoffeesand a tea - дві чашки кави і одна чаю;
- перед Mr., Mrs., Miss + прізвище у значенні “якийсь”: a Mr. Brown- якийсь Браун;
- перед іменем автора, якщо маємо на увазі твір літератури або мистецтва тощо: a Renoir - картина Ренуара;
- перед власними назвами, що перейшли в розряд загальних, якщо йдеться про те, що хтось має або не має особливі якості, притаманні названій особі:
Peterplaysfootballwell, butheisnot (a) Shevchenko.
В деяких випадках артикль відсутній або вживається означений артикль the:
MozartwascalledtheRaphaelofmusic.
- коли мова йде про один екземпляр чого-небудь:
Hebought a Tavria.
- перед власною назвою, надаючи їй значення приналежності до сім'ї:
ShemarriedaThompson. — Вона вийшла заміж за одного з Томпсонів|.
- в окличних реченнях після what перед обчислюваними іменниками:
Whatasurprise!
- після such, rather, quite перед обчислюваними іменниками в однині:
Isn't it strange that I who have written only unpopular books should be such a popular fellow? (AlbertEinstein)
- перед абстрактними іменниками у значенні akindof (такий, такого роду), якщо вони мають означення і мова йде про різновид прояву якості, почуття тощо:
Agreaterunityisneeded.
- перед іменниками-назвами речовин, якщо вони мають означення, що описує різні види або сорти речовини: a deliciousCalifornianwine
- перед назвами прийомів їжі, якщо перед ними стоїть прикметник або якщо це спеціальні прийоми на честь кого-небудь:
Afteragooddinneronecanforgiveanybody, evenone'sownrelations. (OscarWilde)
- перед іменниками, що означають пори року, якщо ми виділяємо якийсь певний період:
IspentawinterinEgypt.
- перед назвами днів, місяців і пір року, якщо їм передує описове означення:
AcoldMayisausualthinginourcity. Imethimonahot Monday.Itwas a surprisinglymildwinter.
- перед назвами днів, коли ми хочемо виділити якийсь один день тижня:
IalwaysdoyogaonaMonday. He was born on a Monday.
- перед іменникамиday, morning, evening, night, afternoon, якщо перед ними стоїть прикметник: on a cold (hot, rainy, winter, etc.) day (morning, evening, night, afternoon);
- з іменниками, які означають єдині у світі речі, якщо маємо на увазі певний аспектабо прояв і їм передує означення:
There wasa crescent moon last night.
Вживання неозначеного артикля a/an
(тільки із обчислюваними іменниками в однині)
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Примітки |
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При першому згадуванні в даній ситуації |
Theylivein a flat. Heboughtan ice-cream. |
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В значенні один із класу, множини |
A childneedslove. It’s a rose. |
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В значенні «один» |
I’dlikeanapple. |
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При згадуванні професії, національності, релігійної і політичної приналежності |
She’llbe a doctor. Mydadis a politician. |
У цьому випадку іменник є частиною іменного присудка. |
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В конструкціях thereis…, I havegot…, thisis… та схожих |
Thereis a mistakeinthisword. I’vegot a coldagain. |
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В окличних речення після слів what, such |
What a surprise! Such a longqueue! |
What a lotofflowers! What a lotoftrouble! |
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При наявності описового означення |
Wehadbreakfast. – Wehad a veryniceearlybreakfast. |
Thebreakfastweorderedinnotreadyyet. |
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В деякий стійких словосполученнях |
tohave a goodtime togo for a walk |
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A/anабо one
Ми вживаємо one, коли рахуємо:
A wise man hears one word and understands two. (Yiddish Proverb)
One child is often not enough, but two children can be far too many. (Murphy's General Laws)
Ми вживаємо a/an,коли маємо на увазі “будь-який”, “якийсь”:
I need a cup of tea.
Oneвживається зі словами day, evening, morning, night, week, month, year, summer, Monday, January, etc., щоб показати, що дія відбулася в якийсь час у минулому:
One day he walked out of the house and never came back.
Вираз oneday також може вказувати, що дія відбудеться в майбутньому (=some day):
One day you will be sorry to leave this place.
Oneвживаєтьсяв структурі one… other/another:
One Man's Sunset is another Man's Dawn. (FievelMouskawitz)
One boy wanted to read, another wanted to watch TV.
Деякі інші випадки вживання a/an поряд з one були наведені вище.
Артиклі з деякими необчислюваними іменниками
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Без артикля |
A |
Примітки |
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fruit – фрукт, фрукти |
a fruit – плід |
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help – допомога |
a help – помічник |
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hair – волосся |
a hair – волосина |
Конкретизація значення |
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experience – досвід |
anexperience – випадок |
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knowledge – знання |
a goodknowledgeoflife |
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hatred - ненависть |
a hatredofviolence |
Уточнююче визначення |
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education – освіта |
a classicaleducation |
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pity – жалість |
It’s a pityyoucan’tgo. |
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fear – страх |
Thereis a fearthathehasbeenmurdered. |
Уточнююче підрядне |
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suspicion - підозра |
Wehave a suspicionthatshewon’treturn. |
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Вживання означеного артикля
Означений артикль the вживається з іменниками в однині та множині і вказує на конкретну особу або предмет.
Theвживається:
- якщо особа або предмет, що називалися раніше, згадуються знову або вони відомі співрозмовникам:
Thefactoryofthefuturewillhaveonlytwoemployees - amanandadog. Themanwillbetheretofeedthedog. Thedogwillbetheretokeepthemanfromtouchingtheequipment.(WarrenBennis)
Якщо ж при повторному згадуванні ми відносимо особу або предмет до певного типу (або підтипу), то вживається неозначений артикль a (див. розділ “Вживання неозначеного артикля”)
- якщо із ситуації або контексту зрозуміло, про кого або що йде мова:
Didyoulockthecar?
- з іменником, конкретизованим підрядним реченням або означенням:
My opinions may have changed, but not the fact that I am right. (AshleighBrilliant)
- з іменниками, які означають єдині у світі речі: the atmosphere,the universe, the galaxy, the solar system, thesun, theearth, themoon, the sky, the planets, the stars, the equator, the world, etc.:
The sun goes down just when you need it the most.
- з іменником, який означає особу або предмет, єдиний у даній ситуації:
The light at the end of the tunnel is the headlamp of an oncoming train. (Unknown)
- з іменником в однині, який має узагальнююче значення і означає весь клас у цілому:
The optimist proclaims that we live in the best of all possible worlds; and the pessimist fears this is true. (IrvingCaesar)
Проте слово man, у значенні “людство, людська раса” вживається без артикля:
There has been opposition to every innovation in the history of man, with the possible exception of the sword. (BenjaminDana)
- з іменником у множині, якщо він має узагальнююче значення і мають на увазі всі особи або предмети даного класу в певній ситуації або у світі:
HeaveniswherethepoliceareBritish, thecooksareFrench, themechanicsGerman, theloversItalianandit'sallorganizedbytheSwiss. (Unknown)
- з прикметниками і дієприкметниками, що виступають у ролі іменників. Вони мають значення множини і позначають групу людей:
Onlytheeducatedarefree. (Epicteus);The dead might as well try to speak to the living as the old to the young.(WillaCather)
- якщо іменник вживається з прикметником у найвищому ступені порівняння:
Thebestwaytorealizeyourdreamsistowakeup.(PhilJackson)
Означення, виражені прикметником у вищому ступені порівняння, не впливають на вибір артикля:
ButIrefusetobelievethatIamabetteractorthanmyself. (JimCarrey)
- якщо іменник вживається зпорядковим числівником:
The first myth ofmanagement is that it exists; the second myth of management is that success equals skill. (Heller'sLaw)
- якщо іменник вживається з означенням, вираженим одним із слів: only, same, very, last, next, following:
Love is the only force capable of transforming an enemy into a friend. (Martin Luther King, Jr.)
Awell-adjustedpersonisonewhomakesthesamemistaketwicewithoutgettingnervous. (Alexander Hamilton)
Проте next(наступний)та last(минулий) вживаються без артикля у словосполученнях nextyear, nextweek, nextmonth, lastyear, lastweek, lastmonth, тощо:
The devil came to me last night and asked what I wanted in exchange for my soul. I stillcan'tbelieve I saidpizza. (MarcOstroff)
- якщо іменник вживається з конструкціями one of, many of, some of, none of, most of, any of, each of, all of, several of:
The difference between what we do and what we are capable of doing would suffice to solve most of the world's problems. (MohandasGandhi)
- з іменниками назвами речовин, якщо мова йде про певну конкретну кількість речовини, тобто: а) коли із ситуації зрозуміло, про яку саме кількість іде мова, і мається на увазі вся кількість, наявна в даній ситуації:
Passthesaltandpepperplease!
б) коли певна кількість речовини згадується вдруге:
Iboughtsomemeatandmilkyesterdaybutmycatrefusedtoeatthemeat.
в) коли іменник, що означає назву речовини, має при собі означення, яке виділяє певну кількість з усієї кількості:
Thewaterinthisriverisverypolluted.
- з абстрактними іменниками, що мають обмежувальне означення або уточнюються ситуацією:
Theonlyknowledgethatcanhurtyouistheknowledgeyoudon'thave. (Unknown)
- з іменником-предикативом або прикладкою, якщо він означає предмет або особу, виділені з загальної маси або ж загальновідому людину:
WolfgangMozart, thefamousAustriancomposer, startedcomposingmusicwhenhewas 5 or 6 yearsold. (див. також розділ “Вживання неозначеного артикля”)
- перед назвами частин доби (day, dawn, morning, afternoon, evening, night, midnight, twilight, dusk, sunrise, sunsetetc.) та пір року, якщо йдеться про конкретний день, ранок, вечір, тощо або вони мають обмежувальне означення:
Theautumnwasverywarmthatyear.
- із прізвищем у множині, коли йдеться про всю сім’ю: theMansons (сім’я Менсонів)
- з іменем в однині зі значенням “той”: а) коли ми розрізняємо двох осіб з однаковими іменами (чи прізвищами):
WehavetwoMrBrownsinouroffice. – IwanttheMrBrownwhichcalledmeyesterday.
б) коли ми хочемо підкреслити, що названа особа є знаменитістю:
– ImetHarrisonFordyesterday. – DoyoumeantheHarrisonFord?
в) коли порівнюємо особу з тим, якою вона була в минулому.
HewasnottheTomIknewtenyearsago.
- з титулами:the Queen, the Prince of Wales,the Duke of York, the President etc. Проте, якщо титул вживається з іменем, то артикль відсутній:
Prince Charles isthe Prince of Wales.
- з іменником, який називає професію, якщо за ним слідує ім’я або прізвище: thewonderfulactorKevinCostner, thepainterSurikov.
- з назвами океанів: theArcticOcean, thePacificOcean; морів: theBlackSea, theNorthSea; заток, каналів: thePanamaCanal,thePersianGulf, theEnglishChannel,theBayofBengal; річок: theDnipro, theSevern; озер, якщо перед назвою відсутнє слово lake: theMichigan (але LakeMichigan); пустель: theSahara,theKalahari; гірських масивів: theAndes,theApenninemountains; груп островів: theMaldives,theAntilles;theHawaiianIsles; водопадів і гірських перевалів: theSwallowFalls,theSt. GotthardPass(протеNiagaraFalls);
- з назвами країн, якщо до їх складу входять такі слова, як kingdom, republic, state, union:theUnitedKingdom, the United States of America. А також із деякими іншими назвами країн: theArgentine (алеArgentina), theNetherlands;
- з назвамипровінцій: the Ruhr, the Tyrol;
- з назвами музеїв: theBritishMuseum; театрів: theOperaHouse; картинних галерей: theHermitage; концертних залів: theAlbertHall; кінотеатрів: theKyivskaRus; хорів та оркестрів: thePhiladelphiaOrchestra; клубів та готелів;theSavoy; кораблівtheTitanic; газет і журналів: TheTimes, TheWashingtonPost(проте в назвах журналів артикль не завжди присутній Timemagazine, NewScientist); партій: theDemocraticParty.
Якщо до назви ресторанів, готелів, магазинів, банків входить ім’я їх засновників, яке закінчується на -s або -‘s,то артикль не вживається: Harrods;
- із назвами музичних інструментів і танців: theviolin, thetango;
- із назвами пір року. З назвами пір року вживається як артикль the, так і нульовий артикль:
In (the) summerwearegoingaway. (Див. також розділ “Вживання неозначеного артикля”);
- з іменниками, що позначають історичні періоди: intheMiddleAges, the StoneAge;We owe to the Middle Ages the two worst inventions of humanity - gunpowder and romantic love. (AndreMaurois)
- у виразах, що позначають вимірювання і починаються зby: by the kilo, by the litre, by the month.
Вживання означеного артикля the
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Якщоіменникзгадувавсяраніше |
His car struck a tree. You can see the mark on the tree. |
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Якщо на предмет чи особу вказуєситуаціячи контекст |
Pass me the salt, please. Who's at the door? — The postman. |
(the salt on the table) (the one who comes to us) |
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Якщоіменникозначає один у своємуродіоб’єкт |
the Earth, the sea, the sky, the Sun, the Moon, the stars, the universe, the equator, the Great Bear |
Назвиіншихпланет вживаються без артикля: Mars, Pluto |
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При наявностіобмежувальноговизначення |
The Smith you are looking for no longer lives here. The letters on the shelf are for you. |
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Зприкметникамиунайвищомуступені, порядковимичислівниками, словамиonly, next, last, left/right, right/wrong, very, opposite |
It's the worst play I've ever seen. She's the only person for this position. He was the first man who helped me.
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АЛЕ: She was an only child. |
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В узагальненомузначенні, коли іменникпредставляє весь клас людей, тварин, предметів. |
The whale is in danger of becoming extinct. The Japanese admire the traditions of the Chinese. |
АЛЕ: Man developed earlier than people think. |
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Якщоіменникєобставиноюмісцяівсполученняхin the street, to the cinema, in the country |
Ann is in the garden. Can I go to the cinema? They always spend summer in the country. |
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Встійкихсполученняхthe sooner the better, do the shopping, make the bed, on the whole, what’s the use?таін. |
What's the use talking about it now? I haven't made the beds yet. |
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Артиклі з географічниминазвами
The Article with place names (names of buildings, ships, etc.)
Артиклі з іншиминазвами
Артиклі в назвахдеякихкраїн, націй, жителівкраїн і мов
Артиклі з іменниками, що означають часові поняття, назви періоду доби, днів тижня, місяців, пір року і свят
Артиклі з особовимиіменами
Артиклі з іменникамиуфункції прикладки
Артиклі з іменниками в словосполученнях з прийменниками
Артиклівмісцевихзворотахіззначенням «цілетайогочастина» A/TheNoun + of + Noun
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Вживання нульового артикля (відсутність артикля)
Артикль не використовується:
– з іменниками у множині, коли вони вживаються у загальному значенні:
Complexproblemshavesimple, easytounderstand, wronganswers.(Grossman'sMisquote)
– перед іменниками, що вже мають інший детермінант (визначальне слово), такий як присвійний займенник my, his, her, its, our, your, their; вказівний займенник this, that, these, those; неозначені займенники some, any, much, many, little, few, each, every, either, neither; питальні займенники what? which? whose? тощо:
WhenIfirstsawyouwithyoursmilesotender, myheartwascaptured, mysoulsurrendered. (ElvisPresley, It'sNowOrNever.)
– з іменником у множині, коли він виступає представником свого класу:
Elephantsaretheonlyanimalsthatcan'tjump.
– з іменником-предикативом та іменником-прикладкою, коли він вказує ким або чим є особи або предмети:
Friendsarethievesoftime. (Proverb)
– в окличних реченнях після what з обчислюваним іменником у множині або необчислюваним іменником:
Whatnastyweather!
– із обчислюваним іменником у множині після such, quite, rather:
WhywasIbornwithsuchcontemporaries? (OscarWilde)
– з необчислюваними іменниками, вжитими у загальному значенні:
Informationisnotknowledge. Knowledge is not wisdom. Wisdom is not truth. Truth is not beauty. Beauty is not love. Love is not music. Music is the Best. (FrankZappa)
– з іменами та прізвищами людей (окрім випадків, наведених вище): BennyHill, AlbertEinstein
– з назвами країн: Canada (проте theNetherlands, theArgentine (алеArgentina); міст: London (але theHague); вулиць: Whitehall (але: theStrand, theHighStreet, theMall, theLondonroad); площ: TrafalgarSquare; мостів: WaterlooBridge,(але: theGoldenGateBridge, theBridgeofSighs); парків: HidePark, CentralPark; станцій: VictoriaStation, WaterlooStation; континентів: Africa, Asia, Europe; гірських вершин: Everest, MontBlanc; з назвами озер, якщо перед назвою стоїть слово lake: LakeErie, LakeGeneva; окремі острови:Corsica,Elba.
– з назвою спортивних ігор:
I am fond of football.
– у газетних, журнальних заголовках, об’явах, телеграмах тощо:
"HusbandandCatLost... RewardforCat"
– з назвами днів тижня, місяців, свят (окрім випадків, викладених вище): onMonday, atChristmas.
– з іменниками, які позначають титули, військові звання і посади, або якщо такий іменник є формою звертання і за ним iде власне ім’я: CaptainSmith, ProfessorBrown, PrinceCharles, DoctorWhite, QueenElisabeth, Mr. Rogers.
– у звертаннях: Good morning, doctor.
– з іменниками, що позначають членів сім’ї, коли члени родини вживають їх замість власних імен, а також якщо за такими іменниками йде власне ім’я: UncleTom, CousinDick.
WhereisDad? Heisupstairs.
– з іменником-предикативом або іменником-прикладкою в однині, якщо він позначає посаду або звання, які є єдиними в даній ситуації, або коли такий іменник стоїть після слів toappoint, toelect, tomake:
Mr. Smithwasappointedheadofmarketingdepartment.
– з іменником предикативом або прикладкою, що позначає членів сім’ї у випадку, коли ми робимо наголос на соціальний статус цієї особи:
Mary, daughterofamayor, worksatourcollege.
– з власними іменниками, якщо перед ними стоять прикметники little, old, young, dear, poor, honest:
Little Eddie was bent over his deskwriting an exercise when the teacher came up to him.
– з назвами навчальних дисциплін: History, Geography.
– з назвами мов, якщо відсутнє слово language: English (алеtheEnglishlanguage).
– з назвами прийомів їжі: breakfast, lunch, tea, dinner, supper, окрім випадків, перелічених вище:
Therearetwothingsyoucannevereatforbreakfast. Theyare lunch and dinner.
– як правило, з назвами університетів і коледжів, якщо вони не починаються зі слова University: LondonUniversity, OxfordUniversity, TrinityCollege.
– з назвами хвороб: scarletfever, cancer, diabetes, pneumonia(проте (the) flu, (the) measles, (the) mumps). Деякі іменники, які не є спеціальними медичними термінами, можуть бути обчислюваними іменниками і вживатися з неозначеним артиклем:a headache, a sore throat, a cold, (US a toothache, an earache, a backache).
– зі словами bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school, college, university, коли місця, позначені цими іменниками, відвідуються або використовуються в зв’язку з їх призначенням. Якщо це місце відвідується або використовуються з іншою метою, то вживається означений артикль the:
ThankgoodnessIwasneversenttoschool; itwouldhaverubbedoffsomeoftheoriginality. (BeatrixPotter)
One of the most adventurous things left us is to go to bed. For no one can lay a hand on our dreams. (E.V.Lucas)
– зі словом work (місце роботи):
He goes to work early in the morning.
– з кількісними числівниками:
I've been on a diet for two weeks and all I've lost is two weeks. (TotieFields)
Проте, якщо предмети або істоти вже згадувались або вони конкретизуються, то з кількісними числівниками вживається означений артикль the:
The secret of a good sermon is to have a good beginning and a good ending; and have the two as close together as possible. (George Burns)
ДЕТЕРМІНАНТИ
DETERMINERS
Детермінанти – це слова типу the, his, that і под., які вживаються перед іменниками: thecountryside; yourfriend; thatyoung girl; one hundred US dollars; some paper.
Крім артиклів, до таких слів відносяться:
вказівні слова (demonstratives) – this, that, these, those;
присвійні слова (possessives) – my, your(s), his, her(s), its, our(s), their(s);
кількісні слова (quantifiers) – (a) few), (a) little, many, much, some, any, etc.;
числівники (numerals) – one, two, three, etc.
Детермінанти виконують дві функції: вони уточнюють іменник, перед яким вживаються, або вказують на його кількість.
- Where is my book? – It’s on the desk. But don’t take this book because I need it. → my, the і this уточнюють, про які книгу (book) і стіл (desk) іде мова.
- There were a few calls for you. I told the callers that you would be back in two hours. → a few і two вказують на кількість тих, хто телефонував (callers), і на час (hours).
До уточнюючих детермінант відносяться артиклі, присвійні і вказівні слова.
ПРИСВІЙНІ ПРИКМЕТНИКИ І ЗАЙМЕННИКИ
POSSESSIVES
Присвійні прикметники
Присвійні прикметники my, your, his, her, its, our, their, one’s і whose вживаються перед іменником чи групою іменника і вказують на приналежність.
Can I have your phone number, please?
She told me her name.
It’s easy to lose one’s temper when one is criticized.
Whose book is this?
Присвійні прикметники не вживаються з іншими детермінантами, такими як артиклі чи вказівні займенники.
Jane has left her umbrella at the department store. (NOT … the her umbrella)
У прийменникових словосполученнях з іменниками, що означають частини тіла, та з дієсловами типу hit, kiss, punch, slap, bite, touch, pat, sting замість присвійних займенників вживається означений артикль.
I was stung on the arm by a wasp.
Dad patted the dog on the head.
Порівняйте: Jack broke his leg playing ice-hockey.
Присвійні займенники
Присвійні займенникиmine, his, hers, its, ours і theirs схожі на присвійні прикметники, але не є детермінантами, оскільки вживаються без іменника.
Порівняйте:
That’s her bag. – This bag is hers.
Can I borrow your pen? I can’t find mine.
Присвійні займенники можуть вживатися з прийменником of у конструкції іменник + of + присвійний займенник:
a flat of theirs; that new idea of hers.
Is that student your friend? = Is that student a friend of yours?
ВКАЗІВНІСЛОВА
DEMONSTRATIVES
Вказівні слова this/these/that/those в якості детермінант вживаються перед іменниками, що означають як людей, так і предмети. This (sing)/these (pl) вказують на людей чи предмети, які ближче за відстанню чи у часі; that (sing)/those (pl) – на ті, що далі за відстанню чи у часі.
Do you like this dress? I bought it yesterday.
All the time I was in that country I felt bored.
Ми також вживаємо this/these, коли говоримо про майбутні події і that/those, коли посилаємося на події у минулому.
Do you remember that winter we went to France?
These new projects seem to be promising for our company.
Іноді this/these/that/those вживаються з емоційним забарвленням: this /these виражають згоду чи цікавість, тоді як that/those виражають незгоду чи критику.
Tell me about these new neighbours of yours.
I’ve never liked those new neighbours of yours.
Іменник після this/these/that/those може не вживатися, якщо зрозумілий зміст.
I liked the shoes we saw yesterday, but these are fantastic!
Займенники this/these/that/those вживаються без іменників.
This is my room. Come in, please.
Ми також вживаємо this/that у телефонних розмовах: this – коли називаємося, і that – коли уточнюємо, з ким говоримо.
Hello. This is Jane. Is that Nick?
КІЛЬКІСНІСЛОВА
QUANTIFIERS
До кількісних детермінант відносяться словаsome, any, no, many, much, a lot (of), (a) few, (a) little, most, all, both,none, either, neither, each, every, (an)other, а також числівники.
Some/any/no
Some та any вказують на невизначену кількість чогось. Someвживається у стверджувальних реченнях, а також у питальних, коли ми пропонуємо щось або чекаємо на стверджувальну відповідь.
I need some water.
Would you like some water?
Have you got some water? – Порівняйте: Have you got any water here?
Переклад:
Some + обчислювані іменники в однині → якийсь (чи не перекладається).
There must be some mistake.
Some + не обчислювані іменники → небагато.
There is some milk left.
Some +обчислювані іменники у множині → декілька, небагато.
Have somemore vegetables.
Anyвживається у питаннях і з часткою notабо з іншими заперечними словами (hardly, never, without, seldom, rarely) – у заперечних реченнях.
Is there any water in that can?
Unfortunately, there aren’t any tickets for the show left.
You never give me any help.
Any може вживатися в стверджувальному реченні зі значенням «будь-який, кожний, всякий» .
You can take any bus. All go that direction.
No вживається у заперечних реченнях аналогічно not any, щоб виразніше підкреслити заперечну ідею.
Sorry, I can’t do it for you. I have no time. (Пор. I haven’t got any time.)
Many/much/a lot (lots) of/ (a) few/ (a) little
Many/much/alot (lots) of , коли ми говоримо про більше число або кількість людей чи предметів.
Many + обчислювані іменники (офіційний або письмовий стиль).
Many people hunt wild animals for sport.
Much + необчислювані іменники.
Much damage has been caused by the recent fire.
A lot of/lots of + обчислювані та необчислювані іменники (нейтральний або розмовний стиль)
We saw a lot of / lots of places of interest and took a lot of / lots of photos.
There was a lot of / lots of rain last month.
(А) few/(a) littleвживаються, коли ми говоримо про невелику або недостатню кількість чогось.
Afew (of) + обчислювані іменники →декілька.
We stayed a few days in Madrid and visited the Prado and some other museums.
A few of our students visited that conference.
Few (of) + обчислювані іменники → небагато, мало.
Few of the relatives knew the truth.
A little (of) + необчислювані іменники → небагато.
She drank only some tea and ate a little bread.
Little (of) + необчислювані іменники → мало, недостатньо.
Hurry up, we’ve got little time left!
All (of)/most (of)
All (of the) + іменники у множині → усе.
People were coming from all directions.
All (of the) + необчислювані іменники → усе, увесь, цілий.
All wool tends to shrink when washed in hot water.
He has worked hard all year.
Most + іменник → більшість (взагалі).
Most students realize the importance of learning foreign languages.
Mostofthe+ іменник → більшість (у певному випадку).
Most of the students in our group speak good English.
Every/each
Every вживається перед іменниками в однині і означає «кожний», «всякий» при спілкуванні. За змістом every схоже на all.
We enjoyed every minute of our stay in Paris.
Eachтакож вживається перед іменником в однині і перекладається «кожний» і «всякий», але зазвичай вказує на людей чи предмети зокрема.
Each student was given their own email address.
Порівняйте:
Each person in turn went to see the doctor. He gave every patient the same medicine.
Another/the other/other
Another + обчислюваний іменник в однині → інший, інакший, ще один (із багатьох).
Would you like another cup of coffee?
Theother + обчислюваний іменник в однині → інший (з двох), другий.
The bank is on the other side of the street.
Other + необчислюваний іменник в однині → інший, інакший.
I can’t see you now. Some other time, maybe.
Other + іменник у множині → інші, інакші.
This sweater is too big for me. Do you have it in other sizes?
The other + іменник у множині → інші.
Five of us went on a mountaineering expedition while the other sportsmen were staying in the camp.
З іменниками у множині, що вказують на час, відстань, гроші і под., часто вживаєтьсяanother.
We had another five miles to drive.
Could you give me another two days to think over your proposal?
Переклад стійких словосполучень:
Eachother = one another → один одного.
Every other → кожний другий.
They visit us every other week.
The other day → днями, нещодавно.
I ran into Tim while shopping the other day.
On the other hand → з іншого боку.
On the one hand, he would like to have this job; on the other hand, he doesn’t want to move to another city.
The other way round/around → (якраз) навпаки.
I found him, not the other way round.
Both, neither, either, none
Both, neither та either відносяться до двох людей або предметів.
both + іменник в множині → обидва, обидві.
Both satellites were launched in the 1990s.
neither + іменник в однині → жоден, ніякій.
Neither answer is correct, unfortunately.(= not one or the other)
either + іменник в однині → будь якій.
I don’t mind where we go. Either restaurant is fine. (= one or the other is fine)
Ми використовуємо both + of + determiner + іменник/ займенник в множині з дієсловом в множині.
Ми можемо використати either/neither + of + determiner + іменник/ займенник в множині з дієсловом в однині або множині:
Neither of my sisters lives /live in the same town as me.
Both of them are married. (NOT Both of them is married.)
None означає ніхто (з групи). None може використовуватися з дієсловом в однині або множині:
None of our countries is/are able to ignore the implications of global warming.
Запам'ятайте, як перекладаються словосполучення з подвійними прислівниками:
either … or → чи…чи; або…або;
neither … nor → ні … ні;
both … and → і…і; як … такі.
Well, I think she’s either Ukrainian or Polish.
(Порівняйте: There were two options for us, and either was acceptable.)
I neither knew nor cared what was going to happen.
(Порівняйте: Neither plan was approved.)
For this job you will need a good knowledge of both English and French.
(Порівняйте: Both (of the) women were French.)
ЧИСЛІВНИКИ
NUMERALS
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0 – nought /AmE zero 1 – one 2 – two 3 – three 4 – four 5 – five 6 – six 7 – seven 8 – eight 9 – nine 10 – ten 11 – eleven 12 –- twelve 13 – thirteen 14 – fourteen 15 – fifteen 16 – sixteen 17 – seventeen 18 – eighteen 19 – nineteen 20 – twenty |
21 – twenty-one 22 – twenty-two 23 – twenty-three 24 – twenty-four 25 – twenty-five 26 – twenty-six 27 – twenty-seven 28 – twenty-eight 29 – twenty-nine 30 – thirty 40 – forty 50 – fifty 60 – sixty 70 – seventy 80 – eighty 90 – ninety 100 – one / a hundred* 1,000 – one / a thousand 1,000 000 – one /a million Числівники більше1,000 000 відрізняються: (AmE) a billion or a thousand millions - 1,000,000,000 (BrE.) a billion or a million millions - 1,000,000,000,000
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Якщо перед числівниками hundred/ thousand/ million стоять числівники ‘two, three, four’ і так далі, вони не закінчуються на – s.
Наприклад: five hundred dollars (a неfive hundreds dollars);
two / three thousand customers;
two dozen bottles (a неtwo dozens bottles).
Слова dozen*,hundred, thousand, million закінчуються на –s у тих випадках, коли вони виражають невизначену кількість, тобто дюжини, сотні, тисячі і т.д.,при цьому вживаються з прийменником of.
Порівняйте:A hundred tourists… сотня туристів.
Two hundred tourists … двісті туристів.
Hundreds of tourists … сотнітуристів.
E.g. Several thousand people have bought the new model. To be more precise, we have sold eight thousand four hundred and twenty. The population of North America is three hundred and thirty-two million.
* Слово ‘dozen’ часто використовується для позначання числа 12.
Наприклад: 12 roses = a dozen red roses; 6 eggs = half a dozen eggs.
- Великі числа:
310 – three hundred and ten;
425 – four hundred and twenty-five;
1,001 – one thousand and one;
1,100 - a/one thousand, one hundred; (informal style: eleven hundred);
2,084 – two thousand and eighty-four;
6,102 – six thousand, one hundred and two;
50,000 – fifty thousand;
250,127 – two hundred and fifty thousand, one hundred and twenty-seven;
500, 000 – five hundred thousand or half a million;
750,000 – seven hundred and fifty thousand;
1,000,000 – one million (1m).
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1. При написанні чисел кожні три розряди цифр відділяються комою (справа наліво). У випадку з чотирьохзначними числами допустимо писати 4,126 або 4126. 2. При читанні чисел в американському варіанті англійської мови слово «and», як правило, випадає. Порівняйте: 1,400,702 (BrE) one million, four hundred thousand, seven hundred and two (AmE) one million, four hundred thousand, seven hundred two |
- Грошові суми:
При позначенні грошових сум враховується різниця при написанні і прочитанні. При написанні спочатку пишеться знак $, ₤, € тощо, а потім позначається число.
При прочитанні спочатку називається сума, а потім - у яких грошових одиницях вона вимірюється.
₤1.75 one pound seventy-five (one pound and seventy-five pence);
₤3.70 three pounds seventy;
$11.99 eleven dollars ninety-nine (eleven dollars and ninety-nine cents);
€ 250 two hundred and fifty euros;
₤478m = ₤ 478,000,000:
- four hundred and seventy-eight million pounds (BrE);
- four hundred seventy eight million pounds (AmE);
$7.5bn = $7,500,000,000 seven and a half billion dollars.
Примітка:
₤10 це ‘ten pounds’,але ‘a ₤10 note’ читається‘a ten--pound note’;
a ten thousand pound car (а не ‘a ten thousand pounds car’).
- Відсотки:
1% one per cent (AmE percent);
25% twenty-five per cent / percent;
0.2 % nought point two per cent;
0.75% nought point seven five per cent;
3.5% three point five per cent;
31/2% three and a half per cent;
inflation of 3.5 per cent – inflation of three point five per cent;
Oxygen accounts for 40.6% of the earth’s crust. (forty point six per cent).
- Прості та десяткові дроби:
1/2 a (one) half;
1/3 a (one) third;
1/4 a quarter / a (one) fourth;
1/10 a (one) tenth;
2/3 two third+s;
2/5 two fifths;
3/4 three quarters/ three fourths;
21/4 two and a quarter;
21/2 two and a half;
2 9/10 two and nine tenths;
0.1 nought point one (BrE);
zero point one (AmE);
0.001 nought point oh oh one; also possible: point oh oh one;
0.25 nought point two five;
4.83 four point eight three;
99.3 ninety-nine point three;
26.012 twenty-six point oh one two;
127.578 one hundred twenty-seven point five seven eight;
(also possible: one two seven point five seven eight).
Будьте максимально уважні при озвучуванні цифр. Недбалість з ‘0’ може призвести до серйозних помилок або непорозуміння. Якщо, наприклад, називаючи по телефону число 0.145, ви скажете ‘zero point a hundred and forty-five’, англієць може подумати, що ви припустились помилки з нулем або передумали під час розмови і прийняти це за 145.
|
Будьте уважні! В англійській мові при написанні десяткових дробів ставиться крапка, а не кома. Порівняйте: 15.001 fifteen point oh oh one 15,001 fifteen thousand and one |
З числами у вигляді десяткового або простого дробу зі значенням до одиниці зазвичай використовується структура of a+ іменник в однині і читається так: 3/4 ton - three quarters of a ton;
0.25 mile - nought point two five of a mile.
Відповідно, після числа (простого або десяткового дробу) зі значенням більше за одиницю стоїть іменник, як правило, у множині.
18.5 tons читаеться ‘eighteen point five tons’;
3.6 km – three point six kilometres;
11/2 h - one and a half hours.
Можливий також варіант: an hour and a half (але не ‘one and a half hour’).
- Математичні знаки та дії:
+ plus/and;
- minus;
÷ divided by;
x multiplied by/times;
= is equal/equals to/ is;
31 + 46 = 77thirty-one plus forty-six is/equals/is equal to seventy-seven;
thirty-one and forty-six equals seventy-seven;
64 – 31 = 33 sixty-four minus thirty-one equals/ is thirty-three;
9 х 3 = 27 nine multiplied by 3 equals/is twenty-seven;
nine times* three equals/is twenty-seven;
9 ÷ 3 = 3 nine divided by three equals 3;
10 ÷ 6 =1.666 ten divided by six is one point six recurring;
*two times = twice;
three times = thrice;
102 ten squared;
103 ten cubed;
10n ten to the power of n;
√4 the square root of 4;
3√27 the cube root of twenty-seven.
- Дати:
1100 eleven hundred (закінчується на 00);
1500 fifteen hundred;
1900 nineteen hundred;
1905 nineteen hundred and five (офіційно);
nineteen oh five (більш сучасний і розмовний варіант);
1917 nineteen seventeen;
1945 nineteen forty-five;
2000 (the year) two thousand (закінчується на 000);
2001 two thousand and one;
twenty oh one;
2005 two thousand and five / twenty oh five;
2011 twenty eleven;
2012 twenty twelve;
2050 twenty fifty.
May 15, 2012 May the fifteenth, twenty twelve.
15 May, 2012 the fifteenth of May, twenty twelve.
1980s the nineteen eighties.
Examples: life in the nineteen thirties;
pop music of the sixties;
a man in his fifties
- Телефонні номери:
При прочитанні номерів телефонів, факсів (а також банківських рахунків, номерів кімнат, машин, паспортів тощо) кожна цифра вимовляється окремо. Цифра 0 читається як oh (AmE zero). Якщо дві цифри підряд однакові, вживається слово double.
171 225 4677 one seven one (мініпауза) double two five (мініпауза) four six double seven.
- Час
9. 00It’s nine (o’clock). Also: It’s nine a.m. It’s nine p.m.
09.05 It’s nine oh five.
It’s five (minutes) past nine.
AmE: It’s five (minutes) after nine.
09.15 nine fifteen = a quarter past nine;
09.30 half past nine;
09.45 a quarter to ten;
AmE: a quarter of ten.
09.50 ten (minutes) to nine;
12.00 It’s noon.
It’s midnight.
- Температура:
32˚C thirty-two degrees Celsius (or Centigrade);
90˚F ninety degrees Fahrenheit;
0 читається як ‘zero’ (амер. та брит. англ.);
-5˚ five below zero.
Деякі буквені позначення, що використовуються для позначення чисел:
bn
1bn зазвичай 1,000,000,000.
k – в окремих випадках використовується для позначення тисячі;
k = 1,000.
Якщо в об’явах про вакансії вказується заробітна плата у ₤12k, це означає, що вона складає ₤12,000.00 в рік.
m – часто використовується для позначання мільйона;
1m = 1,000,000.
ЗАЙМЕННИК
THE PRONOUN
Займенник – це частина мови, що вказує на предмети, ознаки, кількості, але не називає їх.
Вживання деяких займенників було розглянуто в розділі «Детермінанти».
Особові займенники
Personal Pronouns
|
Особові займенники Суб'єктна форма Personal pronouns Subject form |
Особові займенники Об'єктна форма Personal pronouns Object form |
|
I |
me |
|
you |
you |
|
he |
him |
|
she |
her |
|
it |
it |
|
we |
us |
|
you |
you |
|
they |
them |
Слова I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they і them є особовими займенниками і використовуються замість іменника.
Mary isn’t in the office today. She is on sick leave. I called her in the morning.
Займенник he замінює іменник, що позначає осіб чоловічої статі. Займенник sheзамінює іменник, що позначає осіб жіночої статі. Кажучи про тварин, займенники he або she вживають тоді, коли хочуть підкреслити їх стать, а також в різних казках, байках, або в описах звичок і характеру своїх домашніх вихованців.
My dog Barney is so sweet! He’s only fourteen months.
Займенник it замінює іменник, що позначає неживий предмет, абстрактне поняття, тварину або рослину, а також замінює іменник baby, child, якщо не вказується стать дитини.
A baby needs its mother.
Особові займенники можуть виконувати в реченні функції підмета і додатку.
subject object object
↓ ↓ ↓
Jack called yesterday. He told me that his boss had offered him to head the company’s branch in Warsaw.
Особові займенники звичайно не опускаються в реченні, навіть якщо зміст речення зрозумілий. Вони також не використовуються відразу після іменника, повторюючи його.
They thanked Alex for the job done and paid hima productivity bonus. (NOT … and paid a productivity bonus)
My colleague has always been very helpful and supportive. (NOT My colleague he has always been very helpful and supportive.)
Після дієслова-зв'язки використовується об'єктна форма особового займенника.
Who broke my vase? – It wasn’t me, Mum! It was him!
У розмовній мові, в коротких відповідях також використовується об'єктна форма.
Who said that? – Me.
Але в офіційнішому стилі в таких випадках використовується суб'єктна форма займенника + відповідне допоміжне дієслово.
Who said that? – I did.
Те ж правило відноситься до використання займенників після слів as і than.
Jane goes to the same university as me. (розмовний стиль).
Jane goes to the same university as I do. (офіційний стиль).
Займенник it використовується також як формальний підмет (не перекладається рідною мовою):
а) коли ми говоримо про погоду, час або відстань:
It didn't often rain there. It's five o'clock. It's 10 km from the sea.
б) про людину, коли називаємо її:
Who’s the man in black? – It’s our new director.
в) коли реальним підметом є інфінітив або герундій, або ж перед підрядним реченням із сполучником that:
It’s important to be there on time.
It’s no use trying to explain anything to her.
It’s a shame that he didn’t tell you the truth!
г) коли it відноситься до якогось факту, події або ситуації:
I passed the most difficult exam yesterday. It made me so happy.
д) коли it відноситься до слів nothing, everything, somethingі anything:
Everything happens when you don’t expect it.
е) коли висловлюємо думку про якесь місце або подію:
Oh, it’s so lovely here!
ж) у наступних виразах:
Itseems that …/ It appears that … - Здається, що...
It looks like… - Схоже, що .
It is said that … - Говорять, що.
It doesn’t matter … – Не має значення, і так далі.
Itабоthere?
There також може використовуватися як формальний підмет:
а) коли ми згадуємо щось вперше. Коли повідомляємо подробиці, використовуємо займенник it.
There is а meeting this evening. It will start at seven.
There was an accident yesterday. Fortunately, no one was hurt in it.
б) коли говоримо про існування чогось десь:
There are some letters for you on the desk.
в) з числівниками або із словами, що означають кількість, – а lot of, many, much, more, enough:
There were a lot of problems to discuss.
Will there be enough food?
Дієслово to be після there узгоджується з наступним іменником. Порівняйте:
There is a lot of noise in the street. – There are some people outside.
Неозначено-особовізайменники
Indefinite Personal Pronouns
Коли ми говоримо не конкретно про когось, а узагальнено, ми використовуємо наступні займенники:
You:
In Denmark you often eat sandwiches for lunch.
Practice what you preach. (Уприслів'яхіприказках. Тут: Що проповідуєш, те і в житті роби.)
We (коли ми маємо на увазі також і себе):
We often eat lunch in a bit of a hurry.
They:
They are building a new ring road. (they = authorities)
They have discovered a new treatment for this disease. (they = scientists)
They say it will be very cold this winter (They say – Говорять, …)
They також використовується, коли ми не знаємо стать людини, про яку говоримо.
If anyone calls for me, ask them to leave а message, please.
One:
One should knock before entering somebody’s room (більш офіційний стиль. У розмовній мові - You should knock.)
Зворотні займенники
Reflexive Pronouns
Зворотні займенники вказують, що зазначена в реченні дія спрямована на особу, яка її виконує. Зворотні займенники утворюються шляхом додавання до присвійних займенників закінчення -self або-selves.
|
Особа |
Однина |
Множина |
|
1-а |
myself |
ourselves |
|
2-а |
yourself |
yourselves |
|
|
himself |
|
|
3-я |
herself |
themselves |
|
|
itself |
|
|
|
oneself |
|
Зворотні займенники myself, yourself та інші використовуються після певних дієслів (behave, burn, cut, enjoy, hurt, kill,look at і т. п.), коли і суб'єкт, і об'єкт дії один і той же.
We went out of the sea and dried ourselves.
Вони також можуть використовуватися після дієслова-зв'язки be, feel, look, seem для опису емоції або стану.
She hasn’t been herself recently.
Певні дієслова (wash, shave, dress, undress, meet, rest, relax, stand up, get up, sit down, wake up) зазвичай використовуються без зворотних займенників.
She woke up and dressed. Але: The little girl is washing herself.
Після прийменників місця ми використовуємо особові займенники в об'єктній формі, а не зворотні займенники.
She looked behind her. (NOT …behind herself)
Підсилювальні займенники мають таку ж форму, як і зворотні, але вони мають дещо інший смисл. Вони або виділяють іменник, до якого відносяться, або підкреслюють факт, що саме певна людина зробила дію, або вказують, що вона зробила це сама, без сторонньої допомоги.
The people themselves are very friendly, but the country is poor and dirty.
The manager spoke to me herself. (Або:The manager herself spoke to me.)
Do it yourself and you’ll understand how it’s important.
Запам'ятаєте наступні стійкі вирази із зворотно-підсилювальними займенниками.
Enjoy yourselves! (= Have a good time!)
Behave yourself! (= Be good!)
He likes being by himself. (= He likes being alone.)
She lives by herself. (= She lives on her own.)
By myself, by yourself, by himself, etc. (= on my own, on your own, on his own etc)
Help yourself to tea. (= You're welcome to take some tea if you want some.)
Make yourself at home! (= Feel comfortable.)
Make yourself heard. (= Speak loudly enough to be heard by others.)
Make yourself understood. (= Make your meaning clear.)
ПРИКМЕТНИК
ADJECTIVE
Прикметник (the Adjective) – частина мови, що виражає ознаку предмета і відповідає на питання: What/what kind of..? Який/щоза...?У реченні прикметник може стояти перед означуваним іменником, іноді після нього або після дієслова-зв’язки be, seem, appear, look, feel, smell, taste, get, become, grow, remain, stay, keep.
We are planning to place a large order with this firm.
Please send all goods available.
Our contract is/seems/appears very profitable.
The prices are getting higher every month.
Прикметники, які починаються з a- , а також glad, ill, well (в значенні «здоровий, вдалий, хороший»), у реченні вживаються тільки після дієслова-зв’язки, а не перед іменником:
The baby was asleep (Ср. The sleeping baby moved and started crying).
He looked afraid.
She felt alone.
He is not well, he’s still ill.
Прикметники можуть бути простими, похідними і складними.
Прості прикметники: big, long, strict, old, green тощо.
Похідні прикметники: beautiful, hopeless, unnatural тощо.
Складні прикметники: black-eyed, first-class, light-blue тощо.
Складні прикметники також утворюються шляхом поєднання числівника з іменником водниніу фразах, що вказують навік, обсяг, довжину, ціну, вагу, тривалість, час, відстань і под.
A twenty-year-old man (NOT a twenty-years old man);
a two-metre hole; a three-day trip; a fifty-pound dress.
Найбільш вживані рефікси, що утворюють прикметники від прикметників та іншихчастин мови:
|
префікс |
значення |
приклад |
|
a- |
не, без |
amoral |
|
anti- |
проти |
antisocial |
|
auto- |
сам |
autobiographical |
|
dis- |
не |
disloyal |
|
extra- |
надзвичайно |
extraordinary |
|
hyper- |
особливо |
hypercritical |
|
in- (im- перед p; il- перед l; ir- перед r) |
не |
incomplete, insensitive; impossible; illegal; irrespective |
|
inter- |
між |
international |
|
multi- |
багато |
multicultural |
|
over- |
зверх |
over-confident |
|
post- |
після |
post-modern |
|
pre- |
до |
pre-war |
|
pro- |
на користь |
pro-American |
|
semi- |
пів |
semi-conscious |
|
sub- |
під |
subconscious |
|
super- |
зверх |
supernatural |
|
trans- |
наскрізь |
transatlantic |
|
ultra- |
зверх |
ultramodern |
|
un- |
не |
uncertain |
|
uni- |
одно |
unilateral |
Найбільш вживані суфікси, що утворюють прикметники від інших частин мови:
|
Суфікс |
Значення (співвідноситься зі значенням слова, від якого утворено прикметник) |
приклад |
|
-able |
придатний для, здатний |
drinkable, changeable, understandable |
|
-al |
стосовнодо,що стосується |
practical |
|
-ent |
здатний |
different |
|
-ed |
той, що має |
green-eyed |
|
-ful (значення, протилежне суфіксу -less) |
повний; той, що забезпечує |
useful |
|
-ic |
стосовно до, що стосується |
electric |
|
-ical |
стосовно до |
logical |
|
-ish |
1) схильний; 2) означає національну належність |
1) childish; 2) Swedish |
|
-ive |
здібний |
impressive |
|
-less |
що не має |
hopeless |
|
-like |
подібно |
businesslike |
|
-ly |
що має якість,властивість |
friendly |
|
-ous |
той, що бере до уваги; що характеризується |
dangerous |
|
-ward |
у напрямку |
backward |
|
-y |
характерний |
wealthy |
Оскільки іменник у реченні може визначатися кількома прикметниками, існує певний порядок їх вживання. Як правило, прикметники, що позначають якість, стоять перед класифікуючими:
a white sand castle; asilkdancingshoes.
Прикметники, що виражають думку, вживаються перед описовими:
a pretty young woman; a silly fat cat.
Існує також відносно суворий порядок вживання описових прикметників:
|
|
розмір |
вік |
форма |
колір |
походження |
матеріал |
|
|
a |
small |
|
round |
white |
Italian |
porcelain |
dish |
|
an |
|
old |
square |
brown |
|
wooden |
box |
Числівники зазвичай вживаються перед прикметниками, а first, next та last перед числівниками:
ten white cups; the first good contract; his last two efficient projects.
У деяких випадках прикметники вживаються без означуваних іменників, якщо вони позначають:
а) групу людей, яка об’єднана за якимись фізичними чи соціальними ознаками. У цьому випадку прикметники вживаються з означеним артиклем the:
the old, the young, the poor, the rich, the blind, the deaf, the unemployed.
The number of the unemployed has increased recently;
б) національність. Це прикметники із закінченням –sh і –ch, вони теж вживаються із означеним артиклем the і мають значення множини:
the Welsh, the Irish, the British, the Dutch, the French;
The British are known for their love for pets.
Прикметники також можуть вживатися без означуваного іменника у сталих словосполученнях: the accused – обвинувачений; the deceased – покійний; the former – перший (з вище зазначених); the latter – останній (з вище зазначених).
The meeting was attended by Mr Smith and Mr Jones; the latter is vice-president of the partner company.
Прикметники найвищого ступеня порівняння часто вживаються без означуваного іменника.
John is the cleverest in our group.
прислівник
ADVERB
Прислівник (the Adverb) – частина мови, яка вказує на ознаку дії або обставини, за яких вона відбувається. Прислівник показує як, коли, де, з якою метою тощо відбувається дія, виражена дієсловом.
We woke up late.
Slowly, he approached.
What are you doing tomorrow?
Крім того, прислівник може визначати ступінь якості, виражений прикметником чи іншим прислівником.
I am terribly sorry to tell you this news.
We need to buy some food ─ the fridge is nearly empty.
I am satisfied ─ you’ve translated the text quite well.
Після дієслів-зв’язок: be, seem, appear, look, feel, smell, taste, get, become, grow, remain, stay, keep замість прислівників вживаються прикметники.
He felt angry.
The soup smells delicious!
She appears shy.
Прислівники можуть бути простими і складеними.
Прості прислівники: late, yesterday, here, soon таін.
Складені прислівники (Adj + -ly): quickly, suddenly, fortunately, quietly та ін.
Слід розрізняти різні прикметники і прислівники з однаковим закінченням-ly. Наприклад, слова: costly, deadly, friendly, likely, lively, lonely, lovely, silly, ugly, unlikely є прикметниками, а не прислівниками.
We all noticed his friendly behaviour.
She is such a lovely creature.
Слова daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early, hard, fast, late можуть бути і прикметниками, і прислівниками.
I got up early and took an early train to London.
Is his car so fast or does he drive so fast?
Деякі прислівники схожі, але різняться значенням: hard – hardly, late – lately.
I’ve trained hard for this competition. But I can hardly compete with African athletes.
Lately, she’s been 20 to 30 minutes late to the office, and our boss is outraged.
Прислівники поділяються на кілька категорій:
|
Прислівники місця |
here, there, where, inside, outside, above, below та ін. |
|
Прислівники часу/частоти дії |
now, when, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow, before, after, ever, never, always, sometimes, often, seldom, usually, already, lately, recently та ін. |
|
Прислівники міри і ступеня |
many, much, a lot, (a) few, (a) little, enough, too, very, so, hardly, scarcely, nearly, almost та ін. |
|
Прислівники способу дії |
well, badly, quickly, slowly, early, late, hard, angrily, happily та ін. |
|
Прислівники ймовірності |
probably, certainly, definitely, obviously, maybe, perhaps та ін. |
|
Прислівники, що виражають думку, або слугують для зв’язки з попереднім реченням |
however, luckily, stupidly та ін. |
Залежно від категорії прислівник займає певне місце у реченні: на початку, в середині, в кінці речення:
- На початку речення – з’єднувальні прислівники, прислівники способу дії, часу/частоти дії (крім alway, ever, rarely, seldom, never), ймовірності, місця.
Suddenly, the door opened. Then somebody entered the room.
Usually I get up early. Maybe, I’ve got used to it.
- У середині речення – прислівники часу/частоти дії, ймовірності, міри і ступеня, способу дії.
We always go to the seaside in summer. It is certainly the best place for holiday.
She angrily looked at me. I had completely forgotten to phone her the day before.
У цій позиції прислівник вживається перед більшістю основних дієслів, але після допоміжних і модальних дієслів.
She always comes here at weekends. She certainly likes this place.
I have already looked through your project. I can certainly help you.
- У кінці речення –прислівник способу дії, місця, часу/частоти дії.
You speak English well. I guess, you’ve been working hard.
Emily is reading upstairs. She is unusually quiet today.
Для посилення значення прикметників і прислівників використовується so:
so + adj/adv
I didn’t like the film. The plot was so naїve.
The train arrived so late that we didn’t risk going home on foot and took а taxi.
Порівняйте з such + noun
I didn’t like the film. They used such а naїve plot.
Прикметники і прислівники можуть використовуватися із словом enough («достатньо»). У цьому випадку enough ставиться після прикметників і прислівників.
She is experienced enough to apply for this job.
He was walking slowly enough for me to catch up with him.
Порівняйте використання enough з іменниками:
She hasn’t got enough experience to apply for this job.
Слово too в значенні «надто» ставиться перед прикметником або прислівником.
They are too young to marry.
It was too late to start а new project.
Цей зворот може ще більш посилюватися словом far.
far too much/big/early, etc. = much/too much/big/early, etc.
The issue is far too important to be discussed behind closed doors.
Ступені порівняння прикметників
Утворення ступенів порівняння односкладових і двоскладових прикметників, що закінчуються на y, ненаголошений голосний, l чи r
|
Позитивний ступінь Adj |
Вищий ступінь Adj + er |
Найвищийступінь (the) Adj + est |
|
great |
greater |
(the) greatest |
|
fat |
fatter |
(the) fattest |
|
happy |
happier |
(the) happiest |
|
narrow |
narrower |
(the) narrowest |
|
simple |
simpler |
(the) simplest |
|
clever |
cleverer |
(the) cleverest |
The ferry is cheaper than the plane.
It is the cheapest way to Hastings.
This year has been busier for our company than the previous one.
It has been the busiest year (of all) so far.
Односкладові прислівники і прислівники early, late, fast, hard, near, soon утворюють ступені порівняння аналогічно односкладовим прикметникам.
|
Позитивний ступінь Adv |
Вищий ступінь Adv + er |
Найвищийступінь (the) Adv + est |
|
fast |
faster |
(the) fastest |
|
early |
earlier |
(the) earliest |
|
near |
nearer |
(the) nearest |
Sam lives nearer to the university than Jack, so he can get up later.
Jack overslept and came to the meeting the latest (of all).
Утворення ступенів порівняння більшості двоскладових і багатоскладових прикметників
|
Позитивний ступінь Adj |
Вищий ступінь more +Adj |
Найвищийступінь the most + Adj |
|
usual |
more usual |
the most usual |
|
interesting |
more interesting |
the most interesting |
|
beneficial |
more beneficial |
the most beneficial |
Travelling by car is more stressful than travelling by bus.
It is the most stressful in large cities at rush hours.
This project is more important for our department than the one you suggested.
It is the most important of all (projects we have already done).
Більшість прислівників утворюють форми порівняння таким же чином.
|
Позитивний ступінь Adv |
Вищий ступінь more + Adv |
Найвищийступінь (the) most + Adv |
|
quickly |
more quickly |
(the) most quickly |
|
correctly |
more correctly |
(the) most correctly |
This lecturer explains material more clearly than others. In fact, he explains rules the clearest (of all).
Особливі випадки утворення ступенів порівняння прикметників і прислівників
|
Позитивний ступінь |
Вищий ступінь |
Найвищий ступінь |
|
good |
better |
the best |
|
bad |
worse |
the worst |
|
far |
farther (за відстанню) further (за відстанню; додатковий) |
the farthest
the furthest |
|
old |
older (за сімейними узами; за віком) elder (за сімейними узами) |
the oldest
the eldest |
|
many |
more |
the most |
|
much |
more |
the most |
|
little |
less |
the least |
|
well |
better |
the best |
|
badly |
worse |
the worst |
Sam plays better than everybody else in the team. He is the best player in the team.
Heathrow is farther/further from London than Gatwick.
For further information do not hesitate to contact us.
My elder/older sister has just got married. She is two years older than me.
Her husband is our neighbors’ eldest/oldest son.
She talks less than he does, but she thinks more.
Для підсилення вищий ступінь порівняння прикметників і прислівників вживається зі словами far, much, very much, a lot, rather, a bit, a little, any, no,які перекладаються: далеко, дуже, значно, набагато, істотно, швидше, переважно, скоріше, досить достатньо, ледве, ледь, трохи, ніскільки, аніскільки, анітрохи.
Ukrainian is much more difficultthan Italian.
This place is a bit fartherthan we drove last time.
Is your mother any better?
Our new lecturer is very much nicer than we had last year.
Найвищий ступінь може підсилюватися словами much, by far, quite, nearly, almost, practically.
He is much the most talented of them all.
Jenny was by far the prettiest girl in the group.
It was quite the most stressful day in my life.
Для вираження меншого чи найменьшого ступеня можуть вживатися слова lessі theleast.
This hotel is less expensive (cheaper) because it is the least comfortable (themost uncomfortable), I think.
Особливі конструкції з вищим ступенем прикметників
1) такий (же) … як (і) - as … as:
Her French is as fluent as her native English.
Is it as good as you expected?
2) не такий … як - not so/as … as:
They are not as/so hospitable as we could imagine.
3) вдвічі, втричі більше/менше, ніж - half/twice/three times, as…large/small … as:
He is not half as clever as he was described.
Your room is twice as small as mine.
The way was four times as long as I had hoped.
У таких випадках також вживається конструкція three, four.. manytimes (крім half і twice) + вищий ступінь + than.
The way was four times longer than I had hoped.
4) для опису мінливої ситуації (усе темніше і темніше; все важче і важче) вживається повторення порівняльного ступеня:
It was getting darker and darker.
5) чим …, тим- the + вищий ступінь..., the more + вищий ступінь:
The older he grew,the more stubborn he became.
The more dangerous it was,the more excited he felt.
APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Словотворення
Word formation
I Введення
У англійській мові є декілька способів словотворення:
1) конверсія – творення нових слів без зміни їх написання і вимови:
work – робота; towork – працювати
master – господар; tomaster – керувати, управляти
empty – порожній; toempty - спустошувати
2) словоскладення – утворення нового слова шляхом складання двох слів в одне:
airfield – аеродром (air + field)
birthplace – місце народження (birth + place)
Складні слова зазвичай пишуться разом, але іноді через дефіс, наприклад: water-way– водний шлях (water + way)
3) зміна наголосу в слові і отримання нового слова іншої частини мови:
′increase – збільшення, зростання; toin′crease – збільшувати, зростати;
′export – експорт; toex′port – експортувати.
Іноді з перенесенням наголосу не тільки змінюється частина мови, але певною мірою змінюється і значення:
to re′fuse – відмовлятися;′refuse - сміття.
4) абревіація:
laser = lightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation, – лазер (посилення світла індукованим випусканням випромінювання)
ad = advertisement– реклама
5) афіксація, як найпоширеніший спосіб словотворення, – додавання до кореня суфікса або префікса.
II Суфікси іменників
|
-ment |
high rate of unemployment; reach an agreement |
|
-ion/-tion/-sion |
arrange a discussion; increase oil production |
|
-ation/ition |
an invitation to a conference; political opposition |
|
-ence/-ance |
a difference in prices; a distance of two miles |
|
-ty/ity |
feeling of certainty; measures of security |
|
-ness |
consumers’ willingness to buy a product |
|
-ing |
leave a building; sorry for misunderstanding |
|
-dom |
fight for freedom; the boredom of long winter evenings |
|
-hood |
ties of brotherhood; local neighbourhood |
|
-ship |
a football championship; long-lasting friendship |
|
-ure |
military expenditure; the pressure of work |
III Іменники, що позначають людей
|
-er/-or* |
the chief manager of the company; a newspaper editor |
|
-ist |
places visited by tourists; a talented artist |
|
-ant/-ent |
a personal assistant; students at the university |
|
-an/-ian |
a convention of Republicans; a university librarian |
|
-ee |
an employee of the company ( = someone employed) |
* Суфікс -er також використовується для утворення іменників, що позначають пристрої або механізми, які виконують дію, вказану дієсловом:
a combine harvester; a food mixer.
IV Суфікси дієслів
|
-ize (BrE also -ise) |
A lot of public enterprises were privatized. The company has maximized its profits. |
|
-en |
The gap between rich and poor is widening.
|
|
-ify/-fy |
First of all, we must identify the problem areas. |
|
-ate |
Research indicates possible changes in demand. |
V Суфікси прикметників
|
-al |
a chemical element; a professional skills |
|
-ic |
scientific research; an electric generator |
|
-ive |
an informative talk; the rent inclusive of water and heating |
|
-ful |
a successful career; a cheerful boy |
|
-less |
useless advice; to be powerless to change anything |
|
-ous |
a dangerous situation; luxurious goods |
|
-y |
a rocky landscape; foggy London |
|
-ly |
a friendly smile; a lovely countryside |
|
-able/-ible |
a comfortable seat; a comprehensible task |
|
-ant/-ent |
a dependent factor; a distant relative |
|
-ish |
childish behavior; a vain, foolish woman |
VI Суфікси прислівників
|
-ly |
He replied to my letter very quickly. |
|
-ward(s) |
They continued moving eastwards. |
|
-wise |
Turn the key clockwise. |
VII Деякі часто використовувані префікси
|
anti- (проти) |
anti-war protestors; anti-theft device |
|
co- (разом) |
international cooperation; my co -workers |
|
de- (зворотна дія, зменшення) |
decentralize power; debug a computer program |
|
en-/em- (надавати якість) |
enable an easier access; be emboldened to take decisive measures |
|
ex- (колишній) |
ex-president; ex-boyfriend |
|
inter- (між) |
an intercontinental flight; interstate highways in the US |
|
micro- (дуже маленький) |
use microchips; a microwave oven |
|
mini- (маленький) |
take a mini-bus; use the minibar in a hotel room |
|
mis- (невірно) |
mislead the court; miscalculate the amount |
|
multi- (багато) |
multicultural society; a multimillionaire |
|
over- (надто багато) |
overcrowded roads; cause overproduction |
|
post- (після) |
post-war world; a postgraduate student |
|
pre- (до) |
predetermine the tendency; in prehistoric times |
|
re- (повторно) |
a reunion of university friends; rewrite the essay |
|
semi- (половина) |
semi-skilled work; sitting in a semicircle |
|
sub- (нижче) |
a police subdivision; sub-zero temperatures |
|
super- (великий) |
a new supermarket; a supertanker carrying oil |
|
under- (надто мало) |
underestimate a person; underpaid work |
VIII Заперечні префікси
|
dis- |
a dishonest way to do business; dislike the idea; a disadvantage of the merger |
|
il- (+ l) |
an illegal monopolisation; computer illiterate |
|
im- (+ m or p) |
an impossible task; an impolite question |
|
in- |
politically inactive route; professional incompetence |
|
ir- (+ r) |
an irregular shape; an irrelevant remark |
|
non- |
non-alcoholic drinks; a non-stop flight |
|
un- |
uncertain what to do; an unusual event; unpack the bag |
Appendix 2
|
Таблиця неправильних дієслів |
||||
|
№ |
Неозначена форма дієслова TheInfinitive |
Минулий час Past Indefinite/ Past Simple |
Дієприкметник минулого часу Past participle/ Participle ІІ |
Основні значення дієслова |
|
arise |
arose |
arisen |
виникати, походити; підійматися |
|
|
awake |
awoke awaked |
awoken awaked |
будити, прокидатися |
|
|
be |
was/were |
been |
бути, знаходитися |
|
|
bear |
bore |
born |
народжувати |
|
|
bear |
bore |
borne |
носити, нести;терпіти, зносити |
|
|
beat |
beat |
beaten |
бити, лупити |
|
|
become |
became |
become |
робитися, ставати |
|
|
begin |
began |
begun |
починати (ся) |
|
|
bend |
bent |
bent |
гнути |
|
|
beseech |
besought beseeched |
besought beseeched |
благати, просити |
|
|
bet |
bet |
bet |
битися об заклад,тримати парі |
|
|
bid |
bid |
bid |
наказувати, пропонувати ціну (на щось - for; звич. на аукціоні) |
|
|
bind |
bound |
bound |
в'язати, зв’язувати |
|
|
bite |
bit |
bitten |
кусати (ся) |
|
|
bleed |
bled |
bled |
кровоточити; стікати кров'ю |
|
|
bless |
blest blessed |
blest blessed |
благословляти; освячувати |
|
|
blow |
blew |
blown |
дути; віяти; роздувати |
|
|
break |
broke |
broken |
ламати(ся), порушувати |
|
|
breed |
bred |
bred |
розводити, вирощувати |
|
|
bring |
brought |
brought |
приносити, доставляти |
|
|
broadcast |
broadcast (ed) |
broadcast (ed) |
передавати по радіо |
|
|
build |
built |
built |
будувати |
|
|
burn |
burnt (-ed) |
burnt (-ed) |
горіти, палати |
|
|
burst |
burst |
burst |
лопнути, вибухати |
|
|
buy |
bought |
bought |
купувати |
|
|
cast |
cast |
cast |
кидати |
|
|
catch |
caught |
caught |
ловити, хапати |
|
|
choose |
chose |
chosen |
вибирати |
|
|
cling |
clung |
clung |
чіплятися, прилипати |
|
|
come |
came |
come |
приходити |
|
|
cost |
cost |
cost |
коштувати |
|
|
creep |
crept |
crept |
повзати, плазувати |
|
|
cut |
cut |
cut |
різати, рубати, стригти |
|
|
deal |
dealt |
dealt |
розподіляти; торгувати;мати справу |
|
|
dig |
dug |
dug |
рити, копати |
|
|
dive |
dived, dove |
dived |
пірнати, занурювати |
|
|
do |
did |
done |
робити |
|
|
draw |
drew |
drawn |
тягти, малювати |
|
|
dream |
dreamt dreamed |
dreamt dreamed |
мріяти, бачити у сні |
|
|
drink |
drank |
drunk |
пити |
|
|
drive |
drove |
driven |
вести, гнати |
|
|
dwell |
dwelt |
dwelt |
жити, мешкати, перебувати |
|
|
eat |
ate |
eaten |
їсти |
|
|
fall |
fell |
fallen |
падати |
|
|
feed |
fed |
fed |
годувати |
|
|
feel |
felt |
felt |
почувати (себе) |
|
|
fight |
fought |
fought |
боротися, битися |
|
|
find |
found |
found |
знаходити |
|
|
fit |
fit |
fit |
підходити, бути придатним |
|
|
flee |
fled |
fled |
тікати, рятуватися |
|
|
fling |
flung |
flung |
кидати(ся), жбурляти;рішуче братися |
|
|
fly |
flew |
flown |
літати |
|
|
forbid |
forbade |
forbidden |
забороняти |
|
|
forecast |
forecasted forecast |
forecasted forecast |
передбачати |
|
|
forget |
forgot |
forgotten |
забувати |
|
|
forgive |
forgave |
forgiven |
прощати, вибачати |
|
|
forsake |
forsook |
forsaken |
залишати, покидати;відмовлятися (від звички і т. ін.) |
|
|
foresee |
foresaw |
foreseen |
передбачати |
|
|
freeze |
froze |
frozen |
мерзнути, заморожувати |
|
|
get |
got |
got |
одержувати, ставати, робитися |
|
|
give |
gave |
given |
давати |
|
|
go |
went |
gone |
іти, ходити |
|
|
grind |
ground |
ground |
молоти, терти |
|
|
grow |
grew |
grown |
рости, ставати |
|
|
hang |
hang |
hang |
вішати, висіти |
|
|
hear |
heard |
heard |
чути |
|
|
hew |
hewed |
hewed (hewn) |
рубати, тесати |
|
|
hide |
hid |
hidden |
ховати |
|
|
hit |
hit |
hit |
ударяти |
|
|
hold |
held |
held |
тримати |
|
|
hurt |
hurt |
hurt |
ранити, чинити біль |
|
|
keep |
keep |
kept |
тримати, зберігати |
|
|
kneel |
knelt |
knelt |
ставати на коліна |
|
|
know |
knew |
known |
знати |
|
|
lay |
laid |
laid |
класти; накривати |
|
|
lead |
lead |
lead |
вести,приводити |
|
|
leap |
leapt leaped |
leapt leaped |
стрибати |
|
|
lean |
leaned leant |
leaned leant |
нахиляти(ся);прихилятися |
|
|
learn |
learnt |
learnt |
вчити(ся) |
|
|
leave |
left |
left |
залишати; від'їжджати; заповідати |
|
|
lend |
lent |
lent |
позичати |
|
|
let |
let |
let |
дозволяти, здавати внайми |
|
|
lie |
lay |
lain |
лежати |
|
|
light |
lit lighted |
lit lighted |
запалювати(ся); освітлювати |
|
|
lose |
lost |
lost |
губити, втрачати |
|
|
make |
made |
made |
робити; готувати; заставляти |
|
|
mean |
meant |
meant |
значити |
|
|
meet |
met |
met |
зустрічати |
|
|
mislead |
misled |
misled |
вводити в оману; завести на хибний шлях |
|
|
mistake |
mistook |
mistaken |
помилятися; неправильно розуміти |
|
|
mow |
mowed |
mowed (mown) |
косити; жати |
|
|
overhear |
overheard |
overheard |
підслуховувати;випадково почути |
|
|
overpay |
overpaid |
overpaid |
переплачувати |
|
|
overtake |
overpay |
overpay |
наздогнати; надолужити |
|
|
partake |
partook |
partaken |
брати участь |
|
|
pay |
paid |
paid |
платити; винагороджувати |
|
|
plead |
pleaded pled |
pleaded pled |
просити, благати; звертатися з проханням; клопотатися |
|
|
put |
put |
put |
класти |
|
|
read |
read |
read |
читати |
|
|
rewrite |
rewrote |
rewritten |
переписати |
|
|
rebuild |
rebuilt |
rebuilt |
перебудовувати |
|
|
rend |
rent |
rent |
рвати, роздирати, шматувати |
|
|
retell |
retold |
retold |
переказувати |
|
|
rid |
rid |
rid |
звільняти,рятувати від чогось |
|
|
ride |
rode |
ridden |
їздити верхи |
|
|
ring |
rang |
rung |
дзвонити |
|
|
rise |
rose |
risen |
підніматися |
|
|
rive |
rived |
riven |
розколювати; розщеплювати;розрубувати |
|
|
run |
ran |
run |
бігти |
|
|
saw |
sawed |
sawn |
пиляти, розпилювати |
|
|
say |
said |
said |
говорити, сказати |
|
|
see |
saw |
seen |
бачити |
|
|
seek |
sought |
sought |
шукати; намагатися; прагнути |
|
|
sell |
sold |
sold |
продавати |
|
|
send |
sent |
sent |
посилати |
|
|
set |
set |
set |
ставити; поміщати, заходити (про сонце) |
|
|
sew |
sewed |
sewed |
шити, пришивати, зашивати |
|
|
shake |
shook |
shaken |
трясти(ся); коливати(ся) |
|
|
shape |
shaped |
shaped(shapen) |
надавати форму |
|
|
shear |
sheared |
shorn |
стригти; зрізати |
|
|
shed |
shed |
shed |
втрачати, губити (зуби, вовну, волосся, листя) ; скидати (одяг, шкіру); проливати |
|
|
shine |
shone |
shone |
світити(ся); сяяти |
|
|
shoe |
shod |
shod |
узувати, підковувати |
|
|
shoot |
shot |
shot |
стріляти |
|
|
show |
showed |
shown |
показувати |
|
|
shrink |
shrank |
shrunk |
скорочувати(ся);зсідатися, збігатися (про тканину) |
|
|
shrive |
shrove (shrived) |
shriven (shrived) |
сповідати, відпускати гріхи |
|
|
shut |
shut |
shut |
закривати |
|
|
sing |
sang |
sung |
співати |
|
|
sink |
sank |
sunk |
опускати(ся), тонути; занурюватися |
|
|
sit |
sit |
sat |
сидіти |
|
|
slay |
slew |
slain |
вбивати |
|
|
sleep |
slept |
slept |
спати |
|
|
slide |
slid |
slid |
ковзати; посковзнутися |
|
|
sling |
slung |
slung |
кидати, шпурляти, жбурляти |
|
|
slink |
slunk |
slunk |
іти крадькома; підкрадатися |
|
|
slit |
slit |
slit |
розрізати вздовж, нарізати вузькими смужками, |
|
|
smell |
smelt/smelled |
smelt/smelled |
нюхати; пахнути |
|
|
smite |
smote |
smitten |
ударяти; розбивати |
|
|
sow |
sowed |
sown |
сіяти |
|
|
speak |
spoke |
spoken |
говорити; розмовляти |
|
|
speed |
sped speeded |
sped speeded |
поспішати;прискорювати |
|
|
spell |
spelt spelled |
spelt spelled |
писати або вимовляти (слова) по буквах |
|
|
spend |
spent |
spent |
витрачати;проводити (час) |
|
|
spill |
spilt |
spilt |
розливати(ся), розхлюпувати(ся); розсипати(ся) |
|
|
spin |
spun |
spun |
прясти;мчати, швидко рухатися (на велосипеді тощо |
|
|
spit |
spat |
spat |
плювати(ся) |
|
|
split |
split |
split |
розколювати(ся); розщеплювати(ся) |
|
|
spoil |
spoilt |
spoilt |
псувати(ся) |
|
|
spread |
spread |
spread |
поширювати(ся) |
|
|
spring |
sprang |
sprung |
стрибати, підскакувати; бити джерелом; |
|
|
stand |
stood |
stood |
стояти |
|
|
steal |
stole |
stolen |
красти |
|
|
stick |
stuck |
stuck |
встромляти; приклеювати |
|
|
sting |
stung |
stung |
жалити |
|
|
stink |
stank stunk |
stank stunk |
смердіти |
|
|
strew |
strewed |
strewn (strewed) |
розкидати; розбризкувати;посипати |
|
|
stride |
strode |
stridden |
крокувати |
|
|
strike |
struck |
struck |
бити |
|
|
string |
strung |
strung |
зав'язувати; прив'язувати;шнурувати; натягувати |
|
|
strive |
strove |
striven |
старатися, намагатися, докладати зусиль |
|
|
swear |
swore |
sworn |
клястися, присягатися;лаяти(ся) |
|
|
sweep |
swept |
swept |
мести, підмітати |
|
|
swell |
swelled |
swollen (swelled) |
надимати(ся), пухнути, збільшуватись |
|
|
swim |
swam |
swum |
плавати |
|
|
swing |
swung |
swung |
коливати(ся), гойдати(ся) |
|
|
take |
took |
taken |
брати |
|
|
teach |
taught |
taught |
вчити, навчати |
|
|
tear |
tore |
torn |
рвати(ся) |
|
|
tell |
told |
told |
говорити, сказати |
|
|
think |
thought |
thought |
думати |
|
|
thrive |
throve |
thriven |
процвітати; мати успіх;пишно розростатися |
|
|
throw |
threw |
thrown |
кидати(ся) |
|
|
thrust |
thrust |
thrust |
штовхати;засовувати;колоти |
|
|
tread |
trod |
trodden |
ступати,крокувати, іти |
|
|
unbend |
unbent |
unbent |
випрямляти(ся), випростувати(ся); розгинати(ся) |
|
|
undergo |
underwent |
undergone |
зазнавати, зносити, переносити |
|
|
underlie |
underlay |
underlain |
лежати під чимось, лежати (бути) в основі (чогось) |
|
|
underpay |
underpaid |
underpaid |
недоплатити |
|
|
understand |
understood |
understood |
розуміти |
|
|
undertake |
undertook |
undertaken |
починати, братися |
|
|
underwrite |
underwrote |
underwritten |
підписувати(ся) |
|
|
upset |
upset |
upset |
перекидати(ся); засмучувати |
|
|
wake |
woke |
woken |
прокидатися;будити |
|
|
wear |
wore |
worn |
носити |
|
|
weave |
wove |
woven |
ткати; плести, вплітати |
|
|
weep |
wept |
wept |
плакати |
|
|
win |
won |
won |
перемагати |
|
|
wind |
wound |
wound |
заводити;вертітися, крутитися |
|
|
withdraw |
withdrew |
withdrawn |
брати назад, відкликати;відводити (очі) |
|
|
withhold |
withheld |
withheld |
відмовляти в чомусь; не давати; стримувати, утримувати |
|
|
withstand |
withstood |
withstood |
ставати проти, опиратися |
|
|
wring |
wrung |
wrung |
скручувати |
|
|
write |
wrote |
written |
писати |
|
ENJOY YOUR READING
I, Pencil
My Family Tree as told to Leonard E. Read
Leonard Read
Foundation for Economic Education
December 1958
"Leonard Read's delightful story, 'I, Pencil,' has become a classic, and deservedly so. I know of no other piece of literature that so succinctly, persuasively, and effectively illustrates the meaning of both Adam Smith's invisible hand—the possibility of cooperation without coercion—and Friedrich Hayek's emphasis on the importance of dispersed knowledge and the role of the price system in communicating information that 'will make the individuals do the desirable things without anyone having to tell them what to do.'" (Professor Milton Friedman, the 1976 Nobelist in Economic Science)
I am a lead pencil—the ordinary wooden pencil familiar to all boys and girls and adults who can read and write*.
Writing is both my vocation and my avocation; that’s all I do.
You may wonder why I should write a genealogy. Well, to begin with, my story is interesting. And, next, I am a mystery—more so than a tree or a sunset or even a flash of lightning. But, sadly, I am taken for granted by those who use me, as if I were a mere incident and without background. This supercilious attitude relegates me to the level of the commonplace. This is a species of the grievous error in which mankind cannot too long persist without peril. For, the wise G. K. Chesterton observed, “We are perishing for want of wonder, not for want of wonders.”
I, Pencil, simple though I appear to be, merit your wonder and awe, a claim I shall attempt to prove. In fact, if you can understand me—no, that’s too much to ask of anyone—if you can become aware of the miraculousness which I symbolize, you can help save the freedom mankind is so unhappily losing. I have a profound lesson to teach. And I can teach this lesson better than can an automobile or an airplane or a mechanical dishwasher because—well, because I am seemingly so simple.
Simple? Yet, not a single person on the face of this earth knows how to make me. This sounds fantastic, doesn’t it? Especially when it is realized that there are about one and one-half billion of my kind produced in the U.S.A. each year.
Pick me up and look me over. What do you see? Not much meets the eye—there’s some wood, lacquer, the printed labeling, graphite lead, a bit of metal, and an eraser.
Innumerable Antecedents
Just as you cannot trace your family tree back very far, so is it impossible for me to name and explain all my antecedents. But I would like to suggest enough of them to impress upon you the richness and complexity of my background.
My family tree begins with what in fact is a tree, a cedar of straight grain that grows in Northern California and Oregon. Now contemplate all the saws and trucks and rope and the countless other gear used in harvesting and carting the cedar logs to the railroad siding. Think of all the persons and the numberless skills that went into their fabrication: the mining of ore, the making of steel and its refinement into saws, axes, motors; the growing of hemp and bringing it through all the stages to heavy and strong rope; the logging camps with their beds and mess halls, the cookery and the raising of all the foods. Why, untold thousands of persons had a hand in every cup of coffee the loggers drink!
The logs are shipped to a mill in San Leandro, California. Can you imagine the individuals who make flat cars and rails and railroad engines and who construct and install the communication systems incidental thereto? These legions are among my antecedents.
Consider the millwork in San Leandro. The cedar logs are cut into small, pencil-length slats less than one-fourth of an inch in thickness. These are kiln dried and then tinted for the same reason women put rouge on their faces. People prefer that I look pretty, not a pallid white. The slats are waxed and kiln dried again. How many skills went into the making of the tint and the kilns, into supplying the heat, the light and power, the belts, motors, and all the other things a mill requires? Sweepers in the mill among my ancestors? Yes, and included are the men who poured the concrete for the dam of a Pacific Gas & Electric Company hydroplant which supplies the mill’s power!
Don’t overlook the ancestors present and distant who have a hand in transporting sixty carloads of slats across the nation.
Once in the pencil factory—$4,000,000 in machinery and building, all capital accumulated by thrifty and saving parents of mine—each slat is given eight grooves by a complex machine, after which another machine lays leads in every other slat, applies glue, and places another slat atop—a lead sandwich, so to speak. Seven brothers and I are mechanically carved from this “wood-clinched” sandwich.
My “lead” itself—it contains no lead at all—is complex. The graphite is mined in Ceylon. Consider these miners and those who make their many tools and the makers of the paper sacks in which the graphite is shipped and those who make the string that ties the sacks and those who put them aboard ships and those who make the ships. Even the lighthouse keepers along the way assisted in my birth—and the harbor pilots.
The graphite is mixed with clay from Mississippi in which ammonium hydroxide is used in the refining process. Then wetting agents are added such as sulfonated tallow—animal fats chemically reacted with sulfuric acid. After passing through numerous machines, the mixture finally appears as endless extrusions—as from a sausage grinder-cut to size, dried, and baked for several hours at 1,850 degrees Fahrenheit. To increase their strength and smoothness the leads are then treated with a hot mixture which includes candelilla wax from Mexico, paraffin wax, and hydrogenated natural fats.
My cedar receives six coats of lacquer. Do you know all the ingredients of lacquer? Who would think that the growers of castor beans and the refiners of castor oil are a part of it? They are. Why, even the processes by which the lacquer is made a beautiful yellow involve the skills of more persons than one can enumerate!
Observe the labeling. That’s a film formed by applying heat to carbon black mixed with resins. How do you make resins and what, pray, is carbon black?
My bit of metal—the ferrule—is brass. Think of all the persons who mine zinc and copper and those who have the skills to make shiny sheet brass from these products of nature. Those black rings on my ferrule are black nickel. What is black nickel and how is it applied? The complete story of why the center of my ferrule has no black nickel on it would take pages to explain.
Then there’s my crowning glory, inelegantly referred to in the trade as “the plug,” the part man uses to erase the errors he makes with me. An ingredient called “factice” is what does the erasing. It is a rubber-like product made by reacting rape-seed oil from the Dutch East Indies with sulfur chloride. Rubber, contrary to the common notion, is only for binding purposes. Then, too, there are numerous vulcanizing and accelerating agents. The pumice comes from Italy; and the pigment which gives “the plug” its color is cadmium sulfide.
No One Knows
Does anyone wish to challenge my earlier assertion that no single person on the face of this earth knows how to make me?
Actually, millions of human beings have had a hand in my creation, no one of whom even knows more than a very few of the others. Now, you may say that I go too far in relating the picker of a coffee berry in far off Brazil and food growers elsewhere to my creation; that this is an extreme position. I shall stand by my claim. There isn’t a single person in all these millions, including the president of the pencil company, who contributes more than a tiny, infinitesimal bit of know-how. From the standpoint of know-how the only difference between the miner of graphite in Ceylon and the logger in Oregon is in the type of know-how. Neither the miner nor the logger can be dispensed with, any more than can the chemist at the factory or the worker in the oil field—paraffin being a by-product of petroleum.
Here is an astounding fact: Neither the worker in the oil field nor the chemist nor the digger of graphite or clay nor any who mans or makes the ships or trains or trucks nor the one who runs the machine that does the knurling on my bit of metal nor the president of the company performs his singular task because he wants me. Each one wants me less, perhaps, than does a child in the first grade. Indeed, there are some among this vast multitude who never saw a pencil nor would they know how to use one. Their motivation is other than me. Perhaps it is something like this:
Each of these millions sees that he can thus exchange his tiny know-how for the goods and services he needs or wants. I may or may not be among these items.
No Master Mind
There is a fact still more astounding: the absence of a master mind, of anyone dictating or forcibly directing these countless actions which bring me into being. No trace of such a person can be found. Instead, we find the Invisible Hand at work. This is the mystery to which I earlier referred.
It has been said that “only God can make a tree.” Why do we agree with this? Isn’t it because we realize that we ourselves could not make one? Indeed, can we even describe a tree? We cannot, except in superficial terms. We can say, for instance, that a certain molecular configuration manifests itself as a tree. But what mind is there among men that could even record, let alone direct, the constant changes in molecules that transpire in the life span of a tree? Such a feat is utterly unthinkable!
I, Pencil, am a complex combination of miracles: a tree, zinc, copper, graphite, and so on. But to these miracles which manifest themselves in Nature an even more extraordinary miracle has been added: the configuration of creative human energies—millions of tiny know-hows configurating naturally and spontaneously in response to human necessity and desire and in the absence of any human master-minding! Since only God can make a tree, I insist that only God could make me. Man can no more direct these millions of know-hows to bring me into being than he can put molecules together to create a tree.
The above is what I meant when writing, “If you can become aware of the miraculousness which I symbolize, you can help save the freedom mankind is so unhappily losing.” For, if one is aware that these know-hows will naturally, yes, automatically, arrange themselves into creative and productive patterns in response to human necessity and demand—that is, in the absence of governmental or any other coercive masterminding—then one will possess an absolutely essential ingredient for freedom: a faith in free people. Freedom is impossible without this faith.
Once government has had a monopoly of a creative activity such, for instance, as the delivery of the mails, most individuals will believe that the mails could not be efficiently delivered by men acting freely. And here is the reason: Each one acknowledges that he himself doesn’t know how to do all the things incident to mail delivery. He also recognizes that no other individual could do it. These assumptions are correct. No individual possesses enough know-how to perform a nation’s mail delivery any more than any individual possesses enough know-how to make a pencil. Now, in the absence of faith in free people—in the unawareness that millions of tiny know-hows would naturally and miraculously form and cooperate to satisfy this necessity—the individual cannot help but reach the erroneous conclusion that mail can be delivered only by governmental “master-minding.”
Testimony Galore
If I, Pencil, were the only item that could offer testimony on what men and women can accomplish when free to try, then those with little faith would have a fair case. However, there is testimony galore; it’s all about us and on every hand. Mail delivery is exceedingly simple when compared, for instance, to the making of an automobile or a calculating machine or a grain combine or a milling machine or to tens of thousands of other things. Delivery? Why, in this area where men have been left free to try, they deliver the human voice around the world in less than one second; they deliver an event visually and in motion to any person’s home when it is happening; they deliver 150 passengers from Seattle to Baltimore in less than four hours; they deliver gas from Texas to one’s range or furnace in New York at unbelievably low rates and without subsidy; they deliver each four pounds of oil from the Persian Gulf to our Eastern Seaboard—halfway around the world—for less money than the government charges for delivering a one-ounce letter across the street!
The lesson I have to teach is this: Leave all creative energies uninhibited. Merely organize society to act in harmony with this lesson. Let society’s legal apparatus remove all obstacles the best it can. Permit these creative know-hows freely to flow. Have faith that free men and women will respond to the Invisible Hand. This faith will be confirmed. I, Pencil, seemingly simple though I am, offer the miracle of my creation as testimony that this is a practical faith, as practical as the sun, the rain, a cedar tree, the good earth.
* My official name is "Mongol 482." My many ingredients are assembled, fabricated, and finished by Eberhard Faber Pencil Company.
MONEY
The History of Money
(Chronology)
Inthe Beginning
Barter is the exchange of resources or services for mutual advantage, and may date back to the beginning of humankind. Some would even argue that it's not purely a human activity; plants and animals have been bartering -- in symbiotic relationships - for millions of years. In any case, barter among humans certainly pre-dates the use of money. Today individuals, organizations, and governments still use, and often prefer, barter as a form of exchange of goods and services.
Barter
9,000 -- 6,000 BC: Cattle
Cattle, which include anything from cows, to sheep, to camels, are the first and oldest form of money. With the advent of agriculture came the use of grain and other vegetable or plant products as a standard form of barter in many cultures.
1,200 BC: Cowrie Shells
The first use of cowries, the shell of a mollusc that was widely available in the shallow waters of the Pacific and IndianOceans, was in China. Historically, many societies have used cowries as money, and even as recently as the middle of this century, cowries have been used in some parts of Africa. The cowrie is the most widely and longest used currency in history.
1,000 BC: First Metal Money and Coins
Bronze and Copper cowrie imitations were manufactured by China at the end of the Stone Age and could be considered some of the earliest forms of metal coins. Metal tool money, such as knife and spade monies, was also first used in China. These early metal monies developed into primitive versions of round coins. Chinese coins were made out of base metals, often containing holes so they could be put together like a chain.
500 BC: Modern Coinage
Outside of China, the first coins developed out of lumps of silver. They soon took the familiar round form of today, and were stamped with various gods and emperors to mark their authenticity. These early coins first appeared in Lydia, which is part of present-day Turkey, but the techniques were quickly copied and further refined by the Greek, Persian, Macedonian, and later the Roman empires. Unlike Chinese coins which depended on base metals, these new coins were made from precious metals such as silver, bronze, and gold, which had more inherent value.
118 BC: Leather Money
Leather money was used in China in the form of one-foot-square pieces of white deerskin with colorful borders. This could be considered the first documented type of banknote.
800 - 900 AD: The Nose
The phrase "To pay through the nose" comes from Danes in Ireland, who slit the noses of those who were remiss in paying the Danish poll tax.
806 AD: Paper Currency
The first paper banknotes appeared in China. In all, China experienced over 500 years of early paper money, spanning from the ninth through the fifteenth century. Over this period, paper notes grew in production to the point that their value rapidly depreciated and inflation soared. Then beginning in 1455, the use of paper money in China disappeared for several hundred years. This was still many years before paper currency would reappear in Europe, and three centuries before it was considered common.
1500s: Potlach
"Potlach" comes from a Chinook Indian custom that existed in many North American Indian cultures. It is a ceremony where not only were gifts exchanged, but dances, feasts, and other public rituals were performed. In some instances potlach was a form of initiation into secret tribal societies. Because the exchange of gifts was so important in establishing a leader's social rank, potlach often spiralled out of control as the gifts became progressively more lavish and tribes put on larger and grander feasts and celebrations in an attempt to out-do each other.
1535: Wampum
The earliest known use of wampum, which are strings of beads made from clam shells, was by North American Indians in 1535. Most likely, this monetary medium existed well before this date. The Indian word "wampum" means white, which was the color of the beads.
1816: The Gold Standard
Gold was officially made the standard of value in England in 1816. For centuries earlier silver had been the standard of value. The pound was originally an amount of silver weighing a pound. France and the United States were in favour of a bimetallic standard, and in 1867 an international conference was held in Paris to try and widen the area of common currencies based on coins with standard weights of gold and silver. However when the various German states merged into a single country in 1871 they chose the gold standard. The Scandinavian countries adopted the gold standard shortly afterwards. France made the switch from bimetallism to gold in 1878 and Japan, which had been on a silver standard, changed in 1897. Finally, in 1900, the United States officially adopted the gold standard.
1930: End of the Gold Standard
The massive Depression of the 1930's, felt worldwide, marked the beginning of the end of the gold standard. In 1931 Britain, followed by most of the Commonwealth,Ireland, Scandinavia, Iraq, Portugal, Thailand, and some South American countries abandoned gold.
In the United States, the gold standard was revised and the price of gold was devalued. This was the first step in ending the relationship altogether, and the complexities of international monetary regulation began.
The Present:Paper Money and Coins
Today, every country has its own local currency. The states, members of the European Union, have their common currency – the euro.
The Future: Electronic Money
Digital cash in the form of bits and bytes will most likely become an important new currency of the future.
Excerpts from the book “The Banker” by Leslie Waller
Extract 1
Virginia Clary and Woods Palmer sat in silence until the waitress had moved away.
"You're a second-generation banker," she said.
"Third. My grandfather founded the bank."
"None of us were quite sure why you were chosen over the heads of some of the old-timers around the shop, or a man from another New York bank who knew the local set-up. But I begin to see the logic of the choice."
"The usual move," Palmer explained, "is to pick a man who's a senior partner in the law firm that represents the bank. The future of the world belongs to lawyers, anyway."
"They picked you against a trend?" She thought for a moment. "I doubt it. I think they wanted somebody with banking in his blood."
"I imagine I'll have to take that as a compliment." He sighed. "There're a lot of things about being chosen by Ubco that still haven't been answered to my satisfaction."
"Such as?"
Palmer shrugged slowly. "Technical things," he parried, unwilling to let the matter go any further. It was easy enough, he told himself, to let pleasant conversation with an agreeable dinner partner spill over into the exchange of confidences that weren't meant for exchange. He glanced up at Virginia Clary. Not, he decided, that she'd divulge many confidences about herself. She looked too intelligent for that.
"Ifyou'd-"
"Which reminds me," Palmer cut in, determined to get away from his previous words, "we haven't even begun making a dent in your colossal mound of banking ignorance."
Her eyes widened in mock chagrin. "I'm beginning to feellike a terrible liability to the firm."
"Take comfort from the fact that you probably know more than most of the people in the shop."
"1 know about interest rates and personal loans and amortization and the Federal Reserve and like that," she rattled off. "What am I missing?"
"As we say in public relations, the Big Picture."
Palmer looked up as the waitress brought their coffee. He watched Virginia Clary add cream and sugar and stir it with slow, full sweeps of the spoon. "Something 1 said before," he began then. "About money being as important to modem man as air and food. That's the frame of reference you have to understand."
"Believe me, no one has to explain the importance of money to me."
"Let's call it the necessity of money," he amended.
"There are still places on earth where you can trade a dozen spearheads for a side of dried beef. But they're not the places where history and progress are being made."
"These miserable bartering folks have no A-bombs or moon rockets."
He looked up at her. "You are baiting me again."
"Sorry. Mother's influence. I really do want to know."
"Fine." Palmer sipped his coffee and found it good. "As we get a more highly organized society, money begins to become more important than anything else. Eventually, we reach the stage we're in now. Money buys a man the food he eats, the clothes on his back, care when sick, the roof over him, his education, his recreation, everything. Without money, he can't even die properly, unless he wants to lie in Potter's Field. It's become that sharp a definition: without money, man cannot live or die with decency."
"Is that good?"
"Probably not," Palmer said. "But we are not philosophers, we're bankers. We supply, safeguard, control and define the most precious commodity of life —money."
"More precious than anything?"
"Suggest some other commodities."
"Health?" she asked.
"Preserved and recovered through money."
"I see. And things like, oh, love or hate. Money buys them."
Palmer hunched himself forward until both his elbows rested on the small walnut table. "Try to understand that we're not conducting a philosophical analysis. A man can live without love or hate. Without friends. Without the gratification of desires. But he cannot live, on the material plane, without money."
"That's only one plane of living," she demurred.
Palmer shook his head. "Not at all. Quite the contrary, if anything."
She watched him for a moment, then sat back and folded her hands in her lap. "Anyway," she said then, "that's all there is to the history of Virginia Clary, Except that I'm working on my mother every spare moment I get, trying to wean her from this unreasoning hatred of banks."
"You could have lied to her, told her you were working in a house of ill fame."
"I thought of that," she said. "But then she'd insist on me going to Mass every morning. It's easier this way."
Without warning, the waitress plopped menus in front of them with the question, "Dessert?"
"Just coffee," Virginia Clary said.
"The same."
"You get dessert on the dinner," the waitress reminded Palmer.
"I know."
"Just coffee, please."
"Yes, sir."
Extract 2
Woods Palmer sipped his coffee and sat back in his chair. "What do banks do with money? We keep it in vaults where it can't be stolen, except occasionally. We invest it in bonds and stocks and mortgages and business and personal loans. We handle it. We channel it. We tell it what to do. We mold it and teach it. We create it."
"Money? What do we do, print it?"
"Almost literally," he said.
"Is that legal?"
"Perfectly," Palmer assured her. "As a Federal Reserve Bank, we create a brand-new dollar out of thin air for every four dollars we take in."
"Is that good?"
He slapped his hand palm down on the arm of his chair. "Stop asking philosophical questions. It probably is the worst thing that could happen to the United States of America and our great-grandchildren will pay for it dearly. But right now it's the money that makes our particular mare go."
"In other words, we're responsible for printing money that isn't based on silver?"
In other words, we're creating inflation," Palmer told her. "But inflation is what the American people want."
"You don't really believe that."
"It's not a question of belief. It's a fact. People want to buy all kinds of gimcracks, twenty-one-inch color television sets, two-door refrigerators, overpowered automobiles. They refuse to wait until they have saved up money^ Like little children, when they want something they want it now. All right, behind every automobile and television set stands a man willing to sell.
him the money and get paid for the favor by charging his customer carrying charges. But they need their money now, too. Where do they get it? Most of them don't have enough money to cover the tremendous amount of time . buying that goes on. So, behind them stand banks, providing the money, and more until the supply of money begins to run a little short. You wonder where it's all coming from. But you know where it's coming from. It's rolling off the printing presses."
He stopped, suddenly aware of the fact that his voice had grown in intensity until a man two tables away glanced at him. In the odd silence that followed, Palmer stubbed out his cigarette and wondered why he had got so excited.
"You were beginning to sound like a philosopher there for a second," Virginia Clary said then.
"I do have a philosophy about money," Palmer admitted. "It's an archaic one that would probably wreck the country inside of a week if we ever put it into effect. It's a banker's view of money with centuries of banking behind it."
She leaned forward toward him, watching very closely now. "Tell me this explosive philosophy."
Palmer laughed briefly, without much joy. "Don't spend what you don't have," he said then. "So simple. So impossible." He laid his hands palms up on the small table between them. "When you see a lovely gimcrack, resist the urge to own it at once. Save for it. Then buy it. Chances are, by then the urge to own it will have passed, anyway."
Her rather full eyebrows drew together in an expression of pain. "Oh," she said, "what a terribly limited way to live. I wouldn't like it at all."
Palmer shrugged. "If by limited you mean disciplined, yes."
"Disciplined? Does that sound any better?" She shook her head. "It's a bleak, stark, cold way of life. No adventure, no excitement."
"No problems, no crises."
"You see?" she pounced. "It isn't a way of life at all. It's preview of death."
"Nonsense."
"What is life all about?" she asked. "Problems and crises. Seeing something lovely and wanting it now and taking it and paying for it later."
"Whose life are we talking about?" Palmer wanted to know.
She frowned again. "Yes," she said, "that's right, isn't it? Not everybody wants to live that way. I forgot."
Neither of them spoke for a moment. Palmer watched the upturned palms of his hands, then turned them over on the cool table top. His palms
I definitely think that the prices are our lowest.
I'm absolutely convinced that you should take advantage of our introductory offer.
There's no doubt in my mind that it depends on the number you order.
Extract 3
Virginia Clary said: "The savings banks use the Ubco as a correspondent bank. We sell mortgages to them. We're all doing the same thing — banking. But there is our side and their side. Why?"
"Do you know the difference between a commercial and a savings bank?"
She nodded, blew out smoke and waved it away in a business-like manner, as if disposing of the question. "They can't make business loans."
"That's a by-product of the real difference."
"Which is?"
"Which is shrouded in the mists of time," Palmer explained. "Back, oh, about a century and a half. Right after the turn of the nineteenth century. Poor people could do only two things with their money: hide it under the mattress, or spend it. It wasn't safe under the mattress, so they spent it on the thing that would let them forget their poverty: whisky."
"Ah, well I know the feeling."
"The do-gooders of the day were appalled. Drunkenness was all about
them. So they imported an idea developed in Scotland by a dominie. Minis
ters, philanthropists, educators, reformers ... they began organizing savings
banks to accept the savings of poor people."
"Sounds pretty dastardly."
"Terribly. The regular banks of the period wouldn't touch anything but business deposits or the estates of wealthy men. But the savings banks would accept anything, a penny a week, whatever a wage earner wanted to put aside. And the really dastardly thing was that they invested those pennies and paid back interest to the wage earners as an incentive to save more."
"Criminal!"
"No, the worst part hasn't been explained yet."
"What could be worse?" she asked.
"Just this: these savings banks were mutual. They had no stockholders. They were owned by their depositors. They made money only for their depositors. Nobody skimmed a profit off the top. All the earnings went right • back to the wage earners who deposited their pennies in the savings bank."
"Sounds downright socialistic."
"It is," Palmer told her. "But, you see, Karl Marx was only eight years old when that Scottish minister had his brainstorm."
"Oops."
"In any event, our brand of savings bankers were pretty true-blue. They usually invested their funds in government bonds. Highly patriotic. Highly stable, too. Almost none of their banks ever failed, which is more than you can say for... well, anyway, time passed."
"A century of it."
"A century and more," Palmer said. "Things happened to the wage earner. He became unionized. He got Social Security, old-age benefits, health insurance, life insurance, welfare funds, pensions, everything. The commercial banks stopped turning up their noses at him. They welcomed his savings. He was banking's darling now, secure whether he worked or not, whether he was healthy or sick and with his family provided for when he died." |
"Which has what to do with savings banks?"
"Exactly. It has nothing to do with them. They've outlived their usefulness. Nobody needs them any more."
"Oh," she said, "that's a shame. Really?"
"Seriously. What do they provide that isn't available to the wage earner from five other sources?"
"But it's sad," she objected. "All those ministers".
"I'd never have told you if I'd thought you'd crack up."
"I'll get over it in a moment," she said. "See? I'm over it already. Tell me, has anyone mentioned this to the savings banks? They're cruising right along as though they still served a purpose."
One corner of Palmer's mouth turned up in a wry expression. "That's the whole problem."
"No one's told them, huh?"
"Here is what's happened," Palmer said. "Those ministers planted a seed that grew into a tree. Nobody needs the tree, but it keeps right on growing. Savings banks give jobs to tens of thousands of employees, from the presidents on down to the clerks. True, there aren't any stockholders. But the employee corps has a stake in making sure the savings banking system keeps flourishing."
"Why not let them? I mean, people like to save at savings banks."
"I'll tell you why," Palmer said. "That tree, the one that kept growing? It has deep roots. They've spread out and they keep spreading. And they're stealing the nourishment from the ground on which we're planted. Does that make it clear to you?"
"All of sudden, yes." She sat back and stubbed out her cigarette. Then, looking up at him in a wary way, her eyes half hidden behind her long black lashes, she asked, "What are you going to do about the tree?"
Palmer looked at the table. "Prune it... drastically."
SUCCESS STORY
by James Gould Cozzens
I met Richards ten years or more ago when I first went down to Cuba. He was a short, sharp-faced, agreeable chap, then about twenty-two. He introduced himself to me on the boat and I was surprised to find that Panamerica Steel and Structure was sending us both to the same job.
Richards was from some not very good state university engineering school. Being the same age myself, and just out of tech, I was prepared to patronize him if I needed to; but I soon saw I didn't need to. There was really not the faintest possibility of anyone supposing that Richards was as smart as I was. In fact, I couldn't then imagine how he had managed to get his job. I have an idea now. It came to me when I happened to read a few weeks ago that Richards had been made a vice-president and director of Panamerica Steel when the Prossert interests bought the old firm.
Richards was naturally likeable and I liked him a lot, once I was sure that he wasn't going to outshine me. The firm had a contract for the construction of a private railroad, about seventeen miles of it, to give United Sugar a sea terminal at a small deep-water Caribbean port. For Richards and me it was mostly an easy job of inspections and routine paper work. At least it was easy for me. It was harder for Richards, because he didn't appear ever to have mastered the use of a slide rule. When he asked me to check his figures I found it was no mere formality. "Boy," I was at last obliged to say, "you are undoubtedly the dumbest white man in this province. If you don't buck up, Farrell will see you never get another job down here."
Richards grinned and said, "I never want another one. Not a job like this, anyway. I'm the executive type."'
"Oh, you are!"
"Sure, I am. And what do I care what Farrell thinks? What can he do for me?"
"Plenty. If he thinks you're any good, he can see you get something that pays money".
"He doesn't know anything that pays money, my son."
"He knows things that would pay enough for me," I answered, annoyed.
"Oh," said Richards, "if that's all you want, when Farrell’sworking for me I'll make him give you a job. A good one."
"Go to the devil!" I said. I was still checking his trial figures. "Look, stupid," I said, "didn't you ever take arithmetic? How much are seven times thirteen?"
"Work that out." " Richards said, "and let me have a report tomorrow."
When I had time, I continued to check his figures for him, and Farrell only caught him in a bad mistake about twice; but Farrell was the best man Panamerica Steel had. He'd been managing construction jobs both in Cuba and Mexico for twenty years. After the first month or so he simply let Richards alone and devoted himself lo giving me the whole benefit of his usually sharp and scornful criticism. He was at me every minute he could spare, telling me to forget this or that and use my head, showing me little tricks of figuring and method. He said it would be a good plan to take some Spanish lessons from a clerk he named in the sugar company's office.
"Spanish?" said Richards, when I told him he'd better join the class. "Not for me! Say, it took me twenty-two years to learn English. People who want to talk to me have to know it, or they'd better bring an interpreter with them."
"All right," I said, "I don't mind telling you the idea is Farrell's. He spoke to me about it."
"Well, he didn't speak to me," said Richards. "I guess he thinks I'm perfect the way I am. And now, if you'll excuse me, I have a date with a beer bottle."
I could easily see that he was coming to no good end.
In January several directors of the United Sugar Company came down on their annual jaunt—nominally business, but mostly pleasure; a good excuse to get south on a vacation. They came on a yacht.
The yacht belonged to Mr. Joseph Prossert, who was, I think, chairman of United Sugar's board then. It was the first time I'd ever seen at close quarters one of these really rich and powerful financial figures whose name everyone knows. He was an inconspicuous, rather stout man, with little hair on his head and a fussy, ponderous way of speaking. He was dressed in some dark thin cloth that looked like alpaca.14 His interest in sugar was purely financial—he didn't know anything about it from the practical standpoint. I really saw him at close quarters, too, for he was delayed on his boat when the directors went on a tour of inspection and Farrell left Richards and me and two or three armed guards to come up that afternoon.
Mr. Prossert was very affable. He asked me a number of questions. I knew the job well enough and could have answered almost any intelligent question—I mean, the sort that a trained engineer would be likely to ask. As it was, I suppose I'd said for perhaps the third time, "I'm afraid I wouldn't know, sir. We haven't any calculations on that," getting a glance of mildly surprised disbelief, when Richards suddenly spoke up. "I think, about nine million cubic feet, sir," he said. He looked boyishly embarrassed. "I just happened to be working it out last night. Just for my own interest, that is. Not officially." He blushed.
"Oh," said Mr. Prossert, turning in his seat and giving him a sharp look. "That's very interesting, Mr.—er—Richards, isn't it? Well, now, maybe you could tell me about—"
Richards could. He knew everything. He knew to the last car the capacity of every switch and yard; he knew the load limits of every bridge and culvert; he knew the average rainfall for the last twenty years; he knew the population of the various straggling villages we passed through; he knew the heights of the distant blue peaks to the west. He had made himself familiar with local labor costs and wage scales. He had the statistics on accidents and unavoidable delays. All the way up Mr. Prossert fired questions at him and he fired answers right back.
When we reached the railhead, a motor was waiting to take Mr. Prossert on. Getting out of the gas car, he nodded absent-mindedly to me, shook hands with Richards. "Very interesting indeed," he said. "Very interesting indeed, Mr. Richards. Good-by and thank you."
"Not at all, sir," Richards said. "Glad if I could be of service to you."
As soon as the motor moved off, I exploded. "Of all the asinine tricks! A little honest bluff doesn't hurt; but some of your figures—"
"I aim to please," Richards said, grinning. "If a man like Prossert wants to know something, who am I to hold out on him?"
"I suppose you think you're smart," I told him. "What's he going to think when he looks up the figures or asks somebody who does know?"
"Listen, my son," said Richards kindly. "He wasn't asking for any information he was going to use. He doesn't want to know those figures. If he ever does, he has plenty of people to get him the right ones. He won't remember these. I don't even remember them myself. What he is going to remember is you and me."
"Oh, yes?"
"Oh, yes," said Richards firmly. "He's going to remember that Panamerica Steel and Structure has a bright young man named Richards who could tell him everything he wanted to know when he wanted to know it—just the sort of chap he can use; not like that other fellow who took no interest in his job, couldn't answer the simplest question, and who's going to be doing small-time contracting all his life."
"Oh, yes?" I said. But it is true that I am still working for the Company still doing a little work in the construction line.
The Financier, by Theodore Dreiser
Chapter III
It was in his thirteenth year that young Cowperwood entered into his first business venture. Walking along Front Street one day, a street of importing and wholesale establishments, he saw an auctioneer’s flag hanging out before a wholesale grocery and from the interior came the auctioneer’s voice: “What am I bid for this exceptional lot of Java coffee, twenty-two bags all told, which is now selling in the market for seven dollars and thirty-two cents a bag wholesale? What am I bid? What am I bid? The whole lot must go as one. What am I bid?”
“Eighteen dollars,” suggested a trader standing near the door, more to start the bidding than anything else. Frank paused.
“Twenty-two!” called another.
“Thirty!” a third. “Thirty-five!” a fourth, and so up to seventy-five, less than half of what it was worth.
“I’m bid seventy-five! I’m bid seventy-five!” called the auctioneer, loudly. “Any other offers? Going once at seventy-five; am I offered eighty? Going twice at seventy-five, and”— he paused, one hand raised dramatically. Then he brought it down with a slap in the palm of the other —“sold to Mr. Silas Gregory for seventy-five. Make a note of that, Jerry,” he called to his red-haired, freckle-faced clerk beside him. Then he turned to another lot of grocery staples — this time starch, eleven barrels of it.
Young Cowperwood was making a rapid calculation. If, as the auctioneer said, coffee was worth seven dollars and thirty-two cents a bag in the open market, and this buyer was getting this coffee for seventy-five dollars, he was making then and there eighty-six dollars and four cents, to say nothing of what his profit would be if he sold it at retail. As he recalled, his mother was paying twenty-eight cents a pound. He drew nearer, his books tucked under his arm, and watched these operations closely. The starch, as he soon heard, was valued at ten dollars a barrel, and it only brought six. Some kegs of vinegar were knocked down at one-third their value, and so on. He began to wish he could bid; but he had no money, just a little pocket change. The auctioneer noticed him standing almost directly under his nose, and was impressed with the stolidity — solidity — of the boy’s expression.
“I am going to offer you now a fine lot of Castile soap — seven cases, no less — which, as you know, if you know anything about soap, is now selling at fourteen cents a bar. This soap is worth anywhere at this moment eleven dollars and seventy-five cents a case. What am I bid? What am I bid? What am I bid?” He was talking fast in the usual style of auctioneers, with much unnecessary emphasis; but Cowperwood was not unduly impressed. He was already rapidly calculating for himself. Seven cases at eleven dollars and seventy-five cents would be worth just eighty-two dollars and twenty-five cents; and if it went at half — if it went at half —
“Twelve dollars,” commented one bidder.
“Fifteen,” bid another.
“Twenty,” called a third.
“Twenty-five,” a fourth.
Then it came to dollar raises, for Castile soap was not such a vital commodity. “Twenty-six.” “Twenty-seven.” “Twenty-eight.” “Twenty-nine.” There was a pause. “Thirty,” observed young Cowperwood, decisively.
The auctioneer, a short lean faced, spare man with bushy hair and an incisive eye, looked at him curiously and almost incredulously but without pausing. He had, somehow, in spite of himself, been impressed by the boy’s peculiar eye; and now he felt, without knowing why, that the offer was probably legitimate enough, and that the boy had the money. He might be the son of a grocer.
“I’m bid thirty! I’m bid thirty! I’m bid thirty for this fine lot of Castile soap. It’s a fine lot. It’s worth fourteen cents a bar. Will any one bid thirty-one? Will any one bid thirty-one? Will any one bid thirty-one?”
“Thirty-one,” said a voice.
“Thirty-two,” replied Cowperwood. The same process was repeated.
“I’m bid thirty-two! I’m bid thirty-two! I’m bid thirty-two! Will anybody bid thirty-three? It’s fine soap. Seven cases of fine Castile soap. Will anybody bid thirty-three?”
Young Cowperwood’s mind was working. He had no money with him; but his father was teller of the Third National Bank, and he could quote him as reference. He could sell all of his soap to the family grocer, surely; or, if not, to other grocers. Other people were anxious to get this soap at this price. Why not he?
The auctioneer paused.
“Thirty-two once! Am I bid thirty-three? Thirty-two twice! Am I bid thirty-three? Thirty-two three times! Seven fine cases of soap. Am I bid anything more?” Once, twice! Three times! Am I bid anything more?”— his hand was up again —“and sold to Mr.—?” He leaned over and looked curiously into the face of his young bidder.
“Frank Cowperwood, son of the teller of the Third National Bank,” replied the boy, decisively.
“Oh, yes,” said the man, fixed by his glance.
“Will you wait while I run up to the bank and get the money?”
“Yes. Don’t be gone long. If you’re not here in an hour I’ll sell it again.”
Young Cowperwood made no reply. He hurried out and ran fast; first, to his mother’s grocer, whose store was within a block of his home.
Thirty feet from the door he slowed up, put on a nonchalant air, and strolling in, looked about for Castile soap. There it was, the same kind, displayed in a box and looking just as his soap looked.
“How much is this a bar, Mr. Dalrymple?” he inquired.
“Sixteen cents,” replied that worthy.
“If I could sell you seven boxes for sixty-two dollars just like this, would you take them?”
“The same soap?”
“Yes, sir.”
Mr. Dalrymple calculated a moment.
“Yes, I think I would,” he replied, cautiously.
“Would you pay me to-day?”
“I’d give you my note for it. Where is the soap?”
He was perplexed and somewhat astonished by this unexpected proposition on the part of his neighbor’s son. He knew Mr. Cowperwood well — and Frank also.
“Will you take it if I bring it to you to-day?”
“Yes, I will,” he replied. “Are you going into the soap business?”
“No. But I know where I can get some of that soap cheap.”
He hurried out again and ran to his father’s bank. It was after banking hours; but he knew how to get in, and he knew that his father would be glad to see him make thirty dollars. He only wanted to borrow the money for a day.
“What’s the trouble, Frank?” asked his father, looking up from his desk when he appeared, breathless and red faced.
“I want you to loan me thirty-two dollars! Will you?”
“Why, yes, I might. What do you want to do with it?”
“I want to buy some soap — seven boxes of Castile soap. I know where I can get it and sell it. Mr. Dalrymple will take it. He’s already offered me sixty-two for it. I can get it for thirty-two. Will you let me have the money? I’ve got to run back and pay the auctioneer.”
His father smiled. This was the most business-like attitude he had seen his son manifest. He was so keen, so alert for a boy of thirteen.
“Why, Frank,” he said, going over to a drawer where some bills were, “are you going to become a financier already? You’re sure you’re not going to lose on this? You know what you’re doing, do you?”
“You let me have the money, father, will you?” he pleaded. “I’ll show you in a little bit. Just let me have it. You can trust me.”
He was like a young hound on the scent of game. His father could not resist his appeal.
“Why, certainly, Frank,” he replied. “I’ll trust you.” And he counted out six five-dollar certificates of the Third National’s own issue and two ones. “There you are.”
Frank ran out of the building with a briefly spoken thanks and returned to the auction room as fast as his legs would carry him. When he came in, sugar was being auctioned. He made his way to the auctioneer’s clerk.
“I want to pay for that soap,” he suggested.
“Now?”
“Yes. Will you give me a receipt?”
“Yep.”
“Do you deliver this?”
“No. No delivery. You have to take it away in twenty-four hours.”
That difficulty did not trouble him.
“All right,” he said, and pocketed his paper testimony of purchase.
The auctioneer watched him as he went out. In half an hour he was back with a drayman — an idle levee-wharf hanger-on who was waiting for a job.
Frank had bargained with him to deliver the soap for sixty cents. In still another half-hour he was before the door of the astonished Mr. Dalrymple whom he had come out and look at the boxes before attempting to remove them. His plan was to have them carried on to his own home if the operation for any reason failed to go through. Though it was his first great venture, he was cool as glass.
“Yes,” said Mr. Dalrymple, scratching his gray head reflectively. “Yes, that’s the same soap. I’ll take it. I’ll be as good as my word. Where’d you get it, Frank?”
“At Bixom’s auction up here,” he replied, frankly and blandly.
Mr. Dalrymple had the drayman bring in the soap; and after some formality — because the agent in this case was a boy — made out his note at thirty days and gave it to him.
Frank thanked him and pocketed the note. He decided to go back to his father’s bank and discount it, as he had seen others doing, thereby paying his father back and getting his own profit in ready money. It couldn’t be done ordinarily on any day after business hours; but his father would make an exception in his case.
He hurried back, whistling; and his father glanced up smiling when he came in.
“Well, Frank, how’d you make out?” he asked.
“Here’s a note at thirty days,” he said, producing the paper Dalrymple had given him. “Do you want to discount that for me? You can take your thirty-two out of that.”
His father examined it closely. “Sixty-two dollars!” he observed. “Mr. Dalrymple! That’s good paper! Yes, I can. It will cost you ten per cent.,” he added, jestingly. “Why don’t you just hold it, though? I’ll let you have the thirty-two dollars until the end of the month.”
“Oh, no,” said his son, “you discount it and take your money. I may want mine.”
His father smiled at his business-like air. “All right,” he said. “I’ll fix it to-morrow. Tell me just how you did this.” And his son told him.
At seven o’clock that evening Frank’s mother heard about it, and in due time Uncle Seneca.
“What’d I tell you, Cowperwood?” he asked. “He has stuff in him, that youngster. Look out for him.”
Mrs. Cowperwood looked at her boy curiously at dinner. Was this the son she had nursed at her bosom not so very long before? Surely he was developing rapidly.
“Well, Frank, I hope you can do that often,” she said.
“I hope so, too, ma,” was his rather noncommittal reply.
Auction sales were not to be discovered every day, however, and his home grocer was only open to one such transaction in a reasonable period of time, but from the very first young Cowperwood knew how to make money. He took subscriptions for a boys’ paper; handled the agency for the sale of a new kind of ice-skate, and once organized a band of neighborhood youths into a union for the purpose of purchasing their summer straw hats at wholesale. It was not his idea that he could get rich by saving. From the first he had the notion that liberal spending was better, and that somehow he would get along.
It was in this year, or a little earlier, that he began to take an interest in girls. He had from the first a keen eye for the beautiful among them; and, being good-looking and magnetic himself, it was not difficult for him to attract the sympathetic interest of those in whom he was interested. A twelve-year old girl, Patience Barlow, who lived further up the street, was the first to attract his attention or be attracted by him. Black hair and snapping black eyes were her portion, with pretty pigtails down her back, and dainty feet and ankles to match a dainty figure. She was a Quakeress, the daughter of Quaker parents, wearing a demure little bonnet. Her disposition, however, was vivacious, and she liked this self-reliant, self-sufficient, straight-spoken boy. One day, after an exchange of glances from time to time, he said, with a smile and the courage that was innate in him: “You live up my way, don’t you?”
“Yes,” she replied, a little flustered — this last manifested in a nervous swinging of her school-bag —“I live at number one-forty-one.”
“I know the house,” he said. “I’ve seen you go in there. You go to the same school my sister does, don’t you? Aren’t you Patience Barlow?” He had heard some of the boys speak her name. “Yes. How do you know?”
“Oh, I’ve heard,” he smiled. “I’ve seen you. Do you like licorice?”
He fished in his coat and pulled out some fresh sticks that were sold at the time.
“Thank you,” she said, sweetly, taking one.
“It isn’t very good. I’ve been carrying it a long time. I had some taffy the other day.”
“Oh, it’s all right,” she replied, chewing the end of hers.
“Don’t you know my sister, Anna Cowperwood?” he recurred, by way of self-introduction. “She’s in a lower grade than you are, but I thought maybe you might have seen her.”
“I think I know who she is. I’ve seen her coming home from school.”
“I live right over there,” he confided, pointing to his own home as he drew near to it, as if she didn’t know. “I’ll see you around here now, I guess.”
“Do you know Ruth Merriam?” she asked, when he was about ready to turn off into the cobblestone road to reach his own door.
“No, why?”
“She’s giving a party next Tuesday,” she volunteered, seemingly pointlessly, but only seemingly.
“Where does she live?”
“There in twenty-eight.”
“I’d like to go,” he affirmed, warmly, as he swung away from her.
“Maybe she’ll ask you,” she called back, growing more courageous as the distance between them widened. “I’ll ask her.”
“Thanks,” he smiled.
And she began to run gayly onward.
He looked after her with a smiling face. She was very pretty. He felt a keen desire to kiss her, and what might transpire at Ruth Merriam’s party rose vividly before his eyes.
This was just one of the early love affairs, or puppy loves, that held his mind from time to time in the mixture of after events. Patience Barlow was kissed by him in secret ways many times before he found another girl. She and others of the street ran out to play in the snow of a winter’s night, or lingered after dusk before her own door when the days grew dark early. It was so easy to catch and kiss her then, and to talk to her foolishly at parties. Then came Dora Fitler, when he was sixteen years old and she was fourteen; and Marjorie Stafford, when he was seventeen and she was fifteen. Dora Fitter was a brunette, and Marjorie Stafford was as fair as the morning, with bright-red cheeks, bluish-gray eyes, and flaxen hair, and as plump as a partridge.
It was at seventeen that he decided to leave school. He had not graduated. He had only finished the third year in high school; but he had had enough. Ever since his thirteenth year his mind had been on finance; that is, in the form in which he saw it manifested in Third Street. There had been odd things which he had been able to do to earn a little money now and then. His Uncle Seneca had allowed him to act as assistant weigher at the sugar-docks in Southwark, where three-hundred-pound bags were weighed into the government bonded warehouses under the eyes of United States inspectors. In certain emergencies he was called to assist his father, and was paid for it. He even made an arrangement with Mr. Dalrymple to assist him on Saturdays; but when his father became cashier of his bank, receiving an income of four thousand dollars a year, shortly after Frank had reached his fifteenth year, it was self-evident that Frank could no longer continue in such lowly employment.
Just at this time his Uncle Seneca, again back in Philadelphia and stouter and more domineering than ever, said to him one day:
“Now, Frank, if you’re ready for it, I think I know where there’s a good opening for you. There won’t be any salary in it for the first year, but if you mind your p’s and q’s, they’ll probably give you something as a gift at the end of that time. Do you know of Henry Waterman & Company down in Second Street?”
“I’ve seen their place.”
“Well, they tell me they might make a place for you as a bookkeeper. They’re brokers in a way — grain and commission men. You say you want to get in that line. When school’s out, you go down and see Mr. Waterman — tell him I sent you, and he’ll make a place for you, I think. Let me know how you come out.”
Uncle Seneca was married now, having, because of his wealth, attracted the attention of a poor but ambitious Philadelphia society matron; and because of this the general connections of the Cowperwoods were considered vastly improved. Henry Cowperwood was planning to move with his family rather far out on North Front Street, which commanded at that time a beautiful view of the river and was witnessing the construction of some charming dwellings. His four thousand dollars a year in these pre-Civil–War times was considerable. He was making what he considered judicious and conservative investments and because of his cautious, conservative, clock-like conduct it was thought he might reasonably expect some day to be vice-president and possibly president, of his bank.
This offer of Uncle Seneca to get him in with Waterman & Company seemed to Frank just the thing to start him off right. So he reported to that organization at 74 South Second Street one day in June, and was cordially received by Mr. Henry Waterman, Sr. There was, he soon learned, a Henry Waterman, Jr., a young man of twenty-five, and a George Waterman, a brother, aged fifty, who was the confidential inside man. Henry Waterman, Sr., a man of fifty-five years of age, was the general head of the organization, inside and out — traveling about the nearby territory to see customers when that was necessary, coming into final counsel in cases where his brother could not adjust matters, suggesting and advising new ventures which his associates and hirelings carried out. He was, to look at, a phlegmatic type of man — short, stout, wrinkled about the eyes, rather protuberant as to stomach, red-necked, red-faced, the least bit popeyed, but shrewd, kindly, good-natured, and witty. He had, because of his naturally common-sense ideas and rather pleasing disposition built up a sound and successful business here. He was getting strong in years and would gladly have welcomed the hearty cooperation of his son, if the latter had been entirely suited to the business.
He was not, however. Not as democratic, as quick-witted, or as pleased with the work in hand as was his father, the business actually offended him. And if the trade had been left to his care, it would have rapidly disappeared. His father foresaw this, was grieved, and was hoping some young man would eventually appear who would be interested in the business, handle it in the same spirit in which it had been handled, and who would not crowd his son out.
Then came young Cowperwood, spoken of to him by Seneca Davis. He looked him over critically. Yes, this boy might do, he thought. There was something easy and sufficient about him. He did not appear to be in the least flustered or disturbed. He knew how to keep books, he said, though he knew nothing of the details of the grain and commission business. It was interesting to him. He would like to try it.
“I like that fellow,” Henry Waterman confided to his brother the moment Frank had gone with instructions to report the following morning. “There’s something to him. He’s the cleanest, briskest, most alive thing that’s walked in here in many a day.”
“Yes,” said George, a much leaner and slightly taller man, with dark, blurry, reflective eyes and a thin, largely vanished growth of brownish-black hair which contrasted strangely with the egg-shaped whiteness of his bald head. “Yes, he’s a nice young man. It’s a wonder his father don’t take him in his bank.”
“Well, he may not be able to,” said his brother. “He’s only the cashier there.”
“That’s right.”
“Well, we’ll give him a trial. I bet anything he makes good. He’s a likely-looking youth.”
Henry got up and walked out into the main entrance looking into Second Street. The cool cobble pavements, shaded from the eastern sun by the wall of buildings on the east — of which his was a part — the noisy trucks and drays, the busy crowds hurrying to and fro, pleased him. He looked at the buildings over the way — all three and four stories, and largely of gray stone and crowded with life — and thanked his stars that he had originally located in so prosperous a neighborhood. If he had only brought more property at the time he bought this!
“I wish that Cowperwood boy would turn out to be the kind of man I want,” he observed to himself, meditatively. “He could save me a lot of running these days.”
Curiously, after only three or four minutes of conversation with the boy, he sensed this marked quality of efficiency. Something told him he would do well.
The Iron Heel, by JackLondon
Chapter 2
Challenges
After the guests had gone, father threw himself into a chair and gave vent to roars of Gargantuan laughter. Not since the death of my mother had I known him to laugh so heartily.
I'll wager Dr. Hammerfield was never up against anything like it in his life," he laughed. "'The courtesies of ecclesiastical controversy!' Did you notice how he began like a lamb-Everhard, I mean, and how quickly he became a roaring lion? He has a splendidly disciplined mind. He would have made a good scientist if his energies had been directed that way."
I need scarcely say that I was deeply interested in Ernest Everhard. It was not alone what he had said and how he had said it, but it was the man himself. I had never met a man like him. I suppose that was why, in spite of my twenty-four years, I had not married. I liked him; I had to confess it to myself. And my like for him was founded on things beyond intellect and argument. Regardless of his bulging muscles and prize-fighter's throat, he impressed me as an ingenuous boy. I felt that under the guise of an intellectual swashbuckler was a delicate and sensitive spirit. I sensed this, in ways I knew not, save that they were my woman's intuitions.
There was something in that clarion-call of his that went to my heart. It still rang in my ears, and I felt that I should like to hear it again--and to see again that glint of laughter in his eyes that belied the impassioned seriousness of his face. And there were further reaches of vague and indeterminate feelings that stirred in me. I almost loved him then, though I am confident, had I never seen him again, that the vague feelings would have passed away and that I should easily have forgotten him.
But I was not destined never to see him again. My father's new-born interest in sociology and the dinner parties he gave would not permit. Father was not a sociologist. His marriage with my mother had been very happy, and in the researches of his own science, physics, he had been very happy. But when mother died, his own work could not fill the emptiness. At first, in a mild way, he had dabbled in philosophy; then, becoming interested, he had drifted on into economics and sociology. He had a strong sense of justice, and he soon became fired with a passion to redress wrong. It was with gratitude that I hailed these signs of a new interest in life, though I little dreamed what the outcome would be. With the enthusiasm of a boy he plunged excitedly into these new pursuits, regardless of whither they led him.
He had been used always to the laboratory, and so it was that he turned the dining room into a sociological laboratory. Here came to dinner all sorts and conditions of men - scientists, politicians, bankers, merchants, professors, labor leaders, socialists, and anarchists. He stirred them to discussion, and analyzed their thoughts of life and society.
He had met Ernest shortly prior to the "preacher's night." And after the guests were gone, I learned how he had met him, passing down a street at night and stopping to listen to a man on a soap-box who was addressing a crowd of workingmen. The man on the box was Ernest. Not that he was a mere soap-box orator. He stood high in the councils of the socialist party, was one of the leaders, and was the acknowledged leader in the philosophy of socialism. But he had a certain clear way of stating the abstruse in simple language, was a born expositor and teacher, and was not above the soap-box as a means of interpreting economics to the workingmen.
My father stopped to listen, became interested, effected a meeting, and, after quite an acquaintance, invited him to the ministers' dinner. It was after the dinner that father told me what little he knew about him. He had been born in the working class, though he was a descendant of the old line of Everhards that for over two hundred years had lived in America. [1] At ten years of age he had gone to work in the mills, and later he served his apprenticeship and became a horseshoer. He was self-educated, had taught himself German and French, and at that time was earning a meagre living by translating scientific and philosophical works for a struggling socialist publishing house in Chicago. Also, his earnings were added to by the royalties from the small sales of his own economic and philosophic works.
This much I learned of him before I went to bed, and I lay long awake, listening in memory to the sound of his voice. I grew frightened at my thoughts. He was so unlike the men of my own class, so alien and so strong. His masterfulness delighted me and terrified me, for my fancies wantonly roved until I found myself considering him as a lover, as a husband. I had always heard that the strength of men was an irresistible attraction to women; but he was too strong. "No! no!" I cried out. "It is impossible, absurd!" And on the morrow I awoke to find in myself a longing to see him again. I wanted to see him mastering men in discussion, the war-note in his voice; to see him, in all his certitude and strength, shattering their complacency, shaking them out of their ruts of thinking. What if he did swashbuckle? To use his own phrase, "it worked," it produced effects. And, besides, his swashbuckling was a fine thing to see. It stirred one like the onset of battle.
Several days passed during which I read Ernest's books, borrowed from my father. His written word was as his spoken word, clear and convincing. It was its absolute simplicity that convinced even while one continued to doubt. He had the gift of lucidity. He was the perfect expositor. Yet, in spite of his style, there was much that I did not like. He laid too great stress on what he called the class struggle, the antagonism between labor and capital, the conflict of interest.
Father reported with glee Dr. Hammerfield's judgment of Ernest, which was to the effect that he was "an insolent young puppy, made bumptious by a little and very inadequate learning." Also, Dr. Hammerfield declined to meet Ernest again.
But Bishop Morehouse turned out to have become interested in Ernest, and was anxious for another meeting. "A strong young man," he said; "and very much alive, very much alive. But he is too sure, too sure."
Ernest came one afternoon with father. The Bishop had already arrived, and we were having tea on the veranda. Ernest's continued presence in Berkeley, by the way, was accounted for by the fact that he was taking special courses in biology at the university, and also that he was hard at work on a new book entitled "Philosophy and Revolution." [2]
The veranda seemed suddenly to have become small when Ernest arrived. Not that he was so very large - he stood only five feet nine inches; but that he seemed to radiate an atmosphere of largeness. As he stopped to meet me, he betrayed a certain slight awkwardness that was strangely at variance with his bold-looking eyes and his firm, sure hand that clasped for a moment in greeting. And in that moment his eyes were just as steady and sure. There seemed a question in them this time, and as before he looked at me over long.
"I have been reading your 'Working-class Philosophy,'" I said, and his eyes lighted in a pleased way.
"Of course," he answered, "you took into consideration the audience to which it was addressed."
"I did, and it is because I did that I have a quarrel with you," I challenged.
"I, too, have a quarrel with you, Mr. Everhard," Bishop Morehouse said.
Ernest shrugged his shoulders whimsically and accepted a cup of tea.
The Bishop bowed and gave me precedence.
"You foment class hatred," I said. "I consider it wrong and criminal to appeal to all that is narrow and brutal in the working class. Class hatred is anti-social, and, it seems to me, anti-socialistic."
"Not guilty," he answered. "Class hatred is neither in the text nor in the spirit of anything I have ever written."
"Oh!" I cried reproachfully, and reached for his book and opened it.
He sipped his tea and smiled at me while I ran over the pages.
"Page one hundred and thirty-two," I read aloud: "'The class struggle, therefore, presents itself in the present stage of social development between the wage-paying and the wage-paid classes.'"
I looked at him triumphantly.
"No mention there of class hatred," he smiled back.
"But," I answered, "you say 'class struggle.'"
"A different thing from class hatred," he replied. "And, believe me, we foment no hatred. We say that the class struggle is a law of social development. We are not responsible for it. We do not make the class struggle. We merely explain it, as Newton explained gravitation. We explain the nature of the conflict of interest that produces the class struggle."
"But there should be no conflict of interest!" I cried.
"I agree with you heartily," he answered. "That is what we socialists are trying to bring about,--the abolition of the conflict of interest. Pardon me. Let me read an extract." He took his book and turned back several pages. "Page one hundred and twenty-six: 'The cycle of class struggles which began with the dissolution of rude, tribal communism and the rise of private property will end with the passing of private property in the means of social existence.'"
"But I disagree with you," the Bishop interposed, his pale, ascetic face betraying by a faint glow the intensity of his feelings. "Your premise is wrong. There is no such thing as a conflict of interest between labor and capital--or, rather, there ought not to be."
"Thank you," Ernest said gravely. "By that last statement you have given me back my premise."
"But why should there be a conflict?" the Bishop demanded warmly.
Ernest shrugged his shoulders. "Because we are so made, I guess."
"But we are not so made!" cried the other.
"Are you discussing the ideal man?" Ernest asked, "--unselfish and godlike, and so few in numbers as to be practically non-existent, or are you discussing the common and ordinary average man?"
"The common and ordinary man," was the answer.
"Who is weak and fallible, prone to error?"
Bishop Morehouse nodded.
"And petty and selfish?"
Again he nodded.
"Watch out!" Ernest warned. "I said 'selfish.'"
"The average man IS selfish," the Bishop affirmed valiantly.
"Wants all he can get?"
"Wants all he can get--true but deplorable."
"Then I've got you." Ernest's jaw snapped like a trap. "Let me show you. Here is a man who works on the street railways."
"He couldn't work if it weren't for capital," the Bishop interrupted.
"True, and you will grant that capital would perish if there were no labor to earn the dividends."
The Bishop was silent.
"Won't you?" Ernest insisted.
The Bishop nodded.
"Then our statements cancel each other," Ernest said in a matter-of-fact tone, "and we are where we were. Now to begin again. The workingmen on the street railway furnish the labor. The stockholders furnish the capital. By the joint effort of the workingmen and the capital, money is earned. [3] They divide between them this money that is earned. Capital's share is called 'dividends.' Labor's share is called 'wages.'"
"Very good," the Bishop interposed. "And there is no reason that the division should not be amicable."
"You have already forgotten what we had agreed upon," Ernest replied. "We agreed that the average man is selfish. He is the man that is. You have gone up in the air and are arranging a division between the kind of men that ought to be but are not. But to return to the earth, the workingman, being selfish, wants all he can get in the division. The capitalist, being selfish, wants all he can get in the division. When there is only so much of the same thing, and when two men want all they can get of the same thing, there is a conflict of interest between labor and capital. And it is an irreconcilable conflict. As long as workingmen and capitalists exist, they will continue to quarrel over the division. If you were in San Francisco this afternoon, you'd have to walk. There isn't a street car running."
"Another strike?" [4] the Bishop queried with alarm.
"Yes, they're quarrelling over the division of the earnings of the street railways."
Bishop Morehouse became excited.
"It is wrong!" he cried. "It is so short-sighted on the part of the workingmen. How can they hope to keep our sympathy--"
"When we are compelled to walk," Ernest said slyly.
But Bishop Morehouse ignored him and went on:
"Their outlook is too narrow. Men should be men, not brutes. There will be violence and murder now, and sorrowing widows and orphans. Capital and labor should be friends. They should work hand in hand and to their mutual benefit."
"Ah, now you are up in the air again," Ernest remarked dryly. "Come back to earth. Remember, we agreed that the average man is selfish."
"But he ought not to be!" the Bishop cried.
"And there I agree with you," was Ernest's rejoinder. "He ought not to be selfish, but he will continue to be selfish as long as he lives in a social system that is based on pig-ethics."
The Bishop was aghast, and my father chuckled.
"Yes, pig-ethics," Ernest went on remorselessly. "That is the meaning of the capitalist system. And that is what your church is standing for, what you are preaching for every time you get up in the pulpit. Pig-ethics! There is no other name for it."
Bishop Morehouse turned appealingly to my father, but he laughed and nodded his head.
"I'm afraid Mr. Everhard is right," he said. "LAISSEZ-FAIRE, the let-alone policy of each for himself and devil take the hindmost. As Mr. Everhard said the other night, the function you churchmen perform is to maintain the established order of society, and society is established on that foundation."
"But that is not the teaching of Christ!" cried the Bishop.
"The Church is not teaching Christ these days," Ernest put in quickly. "That is why the workingmen will have nothing to do with the Church. The Church condones the frightful brutality and savagery with which the capitalist class treats the working class."
"The Church does not condone it," the Bishop objected.
"The Church does not protest against it," Ernest replied. "And in so far as the Church does not protest, it condones, for remember the Church is supported by the capitalist class."
"I had not looked at it in that light," the Bishop said naively. "You must be wrong. I know that there is much that is sad and wicked in this world. I know that the Church has lost the--what you call the proletariat." [5]
"You never had the proletariat," Ernest cried. "The proletariat has grown up outside the Church and without the Church."
"I do not follow you," the Bishop said faintly.
"Then let me explain. With the introduction of machinery and the factory system in the latter part of the eighteenth century, the great mass of the working people was separated from the land. The old system of labor was broken down. The working people were driven from their villages and herded in factory towns. The mothers and children were put to work at the new machines. Family life ceased. The conditions were frightful. It is a tale of blood."
"I know, I know," Bishop Morehouse interrupted with an agonized expression on his face. "It was terrible. But it occurred a century and a half ago."
"And there, a century and a half ago, originated the modern proletariat," Ernest continued. "And the Church ignored it. While a slaughter-house was made of the nation by the capitalist, the Church was dumb. It did not protest, as to-day it does not protest. As Austin Lewis [6] says, speaking of that time, those to whom the command 'Feed my lambs' had been given, saw those lambs sold into slavery and worked to death without a protest. [7] The Church was dumb, then, and before I go on I want you either flatly to agree with me or flatly to disagree with me. Was the Church dumb then?"
Bishop Morehouse hesitated. Like Dr. Hammerfield, he was unused to this fierce "infighting," as Ernest called it.
"The history of the eighteenth century is written," Ernest prompted. "If the Church was not dumb, it will be found not dumb in the books."
"I am afraid the Church was dumb," the Bishop confessed.
"And the Church is dumb to-day."
"There I disagree," said the Bishop.
Ernest paused, looked at him searchingly, and accepted the challenge.
"All right," he said. "Let us see. In Chicago there are women who toil all the week for ninety cents. Has the Church protested?"
"This is news to me," was the answer. "Ninety cents per week! It is horrible!"
"Has the Church protested?" Ernest insisted.
"The Church does not know." The Bishop was struggling hard.
"Yet the command to the Church was, 'Feed my lambs,'" Ernest sneered. And then, the next moment, "Pardon my sneer, Bishop. But can you wonder that we lose patience with you? When have you protested to your capitalistic congregations at the working of children in the Southern cotton mills? [8] Children, six and seven years of age, working every night at twelve-hour shifts? They never see the blessed sunshine. They die like flies. The dividends are paid out of their blood. And out of the dividends magnificent churches are built in New England, wherein your kind preaches pleasant platitudes to the sleek, full-bellied recipients of those dividends."
It is not at all remarkable that this same note should have been struck by the Church a generation or so later in relation to the defence of capitalistic property. In the great museum at Asgard there is a book entitled "Essays in Application," written by Henry van Dyke. The book was published in 1905 of the Christian Era. From what we can make out, Van Dyke must have been a churchman. The book is a good example of what Everhard would have called bourgeois thinking. Note the similarity between the utterance of the Charleston Baptist Association quoted above, and the following utterance of Van Dyke seventy years later: "The Bible teaches that God owns the world. He distributes to every man according to His own good pleasure, conformably to general laws."
"I did not know," the Bishop murmured faintly. His face was pale, and he seemed suffering from nausea.
"Then you have not protested?"
The Bishop shook his head.
"Then the Church is dumb to-day, as it was in the eighteenth century?"
The Bishop was silent, and for once Ernest forbore to press the point.
"And do not forget, whenever a churchman does protest, that he is discharged."
"I hardly think that is fair," was the objection.
"Will you protest?" Ernest demanded.
"Show me evils, such as you mention, in our own community, and I will protest."
"I'll show you," Ernest said quietly. "I am at your disposal. I will take you on a journey through hell."
"And I shall protest." The Bishop straightened himself in his chair, and over his gentle face spread the harshness of the warrior. "The Church shall not be dumb!"
"You will be discharged," was the warning.
"I shall prove the contrary," was the retort. "I shall prove, if what you say is so, that the Church has erred through ignorance. And, furthermore, I hold that whatever is horrible in industrial society is due to the ignorance of the capitalist class. It will mend all that is wrong as soon as it receives the message. And this message it shall be the duty of the Church to deliver."
Ernest laughed. He laughed brutally, and I was driven to the Bishop's defence.
"Remember," I said, "you see but one side of the shield. There is much good in us, though you give us credit for no good at all. Bishop Morehouse is right. The industrial wrong, terrible as you say it is, is due to ignorance. The divisions of society have become too widely separated."
"The wild Indian is not so brutal and savage as the capitalist class," he answered; and in that moment I hated him.
"You do not know us," I answered. "We are not brutal and savage."
"Prove it," he challenged.
"How can I prove it . . . to you?" I was growing angry.
He shook his head. "I do not ask you to prove it to me. I ask you to prove it to yourself."
"I know," I said.
"You know nothing," was his rude reply.
"There, there, children," father said soothingly.
"I don't care--" I began indignantly, but Ernest interrupted.
"I understand you have money, or your father has, which is the same thing--money invested in the Sierra Mills."
"What has that to do with it?" I cried.
"Nothing much," he began slowly, "except that the gown you wear is stained with blood. The food you eat is a bloody stew. The blood of little children and of strong men is dripping from your very roof-beams. I can close my eyes, now, and hear it drip, drop, drip, drop, all about me."
And suiting the action to the words, he closed his eyes and leaned back in his chair. I burst into tears of mortification and hurt vanity. I had never been so brutally treated in my life. Both the Bishop and my father were embarrassed and perturbed. They tried to lead the conversation away into easier channels; but Ernest opened his eyes, looked at me, and waved them aside. His mouth was stern, and his eyes too; and in the latter there was no glint of laughter. What he was about to say, what terrible castigation he was going to give me, I never knew; for at that moment a man, passing along the sidewalk, stopped and glanced in at us. He was a large man, poorly dressed, and on his back was a great load of rattan and bamboo stands, chairs, and screens. He looked at the house as if debating whether or not he should come in and try to sell some of his wares.
"That man's name is Jackson," Ernest said.
"With that strong body of his he should be at work, and not peddling," [9] I answered curtly.
"Notice the sleeve of his left arm," Ernest said gently.
I looked, and saw that the sleeve was empty.
"It was some of the blood from that arm that I heard dripping from your roof-beams," Ernest said with continued gentleness. "He lost his arm in the Sierra Mills, and like a broken-down horse you turned him out on the highway to die. When I say 'you,' I mean the superintendent and the officials that you and the other stockholders pay to manage the mills for you. It was an accident. It was caused by his trying to save the company a few dollars. The toothed drum of the picker caught his arm. He might have let the small flint that he saw in the teeth go through. It would have smashed out a double row of spikes. But he reached for the flint, and his arm was picked and clawed to shreds from the finger tips to the shoulder. It was at night. The mills were working overtime. They paid a fat dividend that quarter. Jackson had been working many hours, and his muscles had lost their resiliency and snap. They made his movements a bit slow. That was why the machine caught him. He had a wife and three children."
"And what did the company do for him?" I asked.
"Nothing. Oh, yes, they did do something. They successfully fought the damage suit he brought when he came out of hospital. The company employs very efficient lawyers, you know."
"You have not told the whole story," I said with conviction. "Or else you do not know the whole story. Maybe the man was insolent."
"Insolent! Ha! Ha!" His laughter was Mephistophelian. "Great God! Insolent! And with his arm chewed off! Nevertheless he was a meek and lowly servant, and there is no record of his having been insolent."
"But the courts," I urged. "The case would not have been decided against him had there been no more to the affair than you have mentioned."
"Colonel Ingram is leading counsel for the company. He is a shrewd lawyer." Ernest looked at me intently for a moment, then went on. "I'll tell you what you do, Miss Cunningham. You investigate Jackson's case."
"I had already determined to," I said coldly.
"All right," he beamed good-naturedly, "and I'll tell you where to find him. But I tremble for you when I think of all you are to prove by Jackson's arm."
And so it came about that both the Bishop and I accepted Ernest's challenges. They went away together, leaving me smarting with a sense of injustice that had been done me and my class. The man was a beast. I hated him, then, and consoled myself with the thought that his behavior was what was to be expected from a man of the working class.
Footnotes
1 The distinction between being native born and foreign born was sharp and invidious in those days.
2 This book continued to be secretly printed throughout the three centuries of the Iron Heel. There are several copies of various editions in the National Library of Ardis.
3 In those days, groups of predatory individuals controlled all the means of transportation, and for the use of same levied toll upon the public.
4 These quarrels were very common in those irrational and anarchic times. Sometimes the laborers refused to work. Sometimes the capitalists refused to let the laborers work. In the violence and turbulence of such disagreements much property was destroyed and many lives lost. All this is inconceivable to us--as inconceivable as another custom of that time, namely, the habit the men of the lower classes had of breaking the furniture when they quarrelled with their wives.
5 Proletariat: Derived originally from the Latin PROLETARII, the name given in the census of Servius Tullius to those who were of value to the state only as the rearers of offspring (PROLES); in other words, they were of no importance either for wealth, or position, or exceptional ability.
6 Candidate for Governor of California on the Socialist ticket in the fall election of 1906 Christian Era. An Englishman by birth, a writer of many books on political economy and philosophy, and one of the Socialist leaders of the times.
7 There is no more horrible page in history than the treatment of the child and women slaves in the English factories in the latter half of the eighteenth century of the Christian Era. In such industrial hells arose some of the proudest fortunes of that day.
8 Everhard might have drawn a better illustration from the Southern Church's outspoken defence of chattel slavery prior to what is known as the "War of the Rebellion." Several such illustrations, culled from the documents of the times, are here appended. In 1835 A.D., the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church resolved that: "slavery is recognized in both the Old and the New Testaments, and is not condemned by the authority of God." The Charleston Baptist Association issued the following, in an address, in 1835 A.D.: "The right of masters to dispose of the time of their slaves has been distinctly recognized by the Creator of all things, who is surely at liberty to vest the right of property over any object whomsoever He pleases." The Rev. E. D. Simon, Doctor of Divinity and professor in the Randolph-Macon Methodist College of Virginia, wrote: "Extracts from Holy Writ unequivocally assert the right of property in slaves, together with the usual incidents to that right. The right to buy and sell is clearly stated. Upon the whole, then, whether we consult the Jewish policy instituted by God himself, or the uniform opinion and practice of mankind in all ages, or the injunctions of the New Testament and the moral law, we are brought to the conclusion that slavery is not immoral. Having established the point that the first African slaves were legally brought into bondage, the right to detain their children in bondage follows as an indispensable consequence. Thus we see that the slavery that exists in America was founded in right."
9 In that day there were many thousands of these poor merchants called PEDLERS. They carried their whole stock in trade from door to door. It was a most wasteful expenditure of energy. Distribution was as confused and irrational as the whole general system of society.
GLOSSARY
ability-to-pay principle – principle that states taxes ought to be paid by those who can best afford them
account balance – the amount of money that you have in your bank account
accountability – the obligation of an individual or organization to account for its activities, accept responsibility for them, and to disclose the results in a transparent manner; it also includes the responsibility for money or other entrusted property
acquisition – taking control of a firm by purchasing 51 percent (or more) of its voting shares
aggregate demand – the total quantity of goods and services consumers, business and government are willing and able to buy at different possible price levels
aggregate supply – the total amount of goods and services produced by the economy in a given period, usually one year
agriculture – the science, art, or practice of cultivating the soil, producing crops, and raising livestock and in varying degrees the preparation and marketing of the resulting products
allocation of resources – the action or process of allocating or distributing resources; an amount of resources assigned to a particular recipient
artisan – a skilled worker who makes things by hand; one that produces something (as cheese or wine) in limited quantities often using traditional methods
assessed value – value placed on real estate or personal property by government (or court appointed) assessors for determining ad valorem (according to the value) taxes, or to levy damages on the orders of a court
asset(s) – a thing or value that a person or a company owns, such as money or property or the right to receive payment of a debt
balance sheet – financial statement summarizing a firm's assets, liabilities and net worth
bank – a financial establishment that uses money deposited by customers for investment, pays it out when required, makes loans at interest, and exchanges currency
bank account – (written abbreviation a/c) an arrangement with a bank that allows you to keep your money there. You can deposit (= pay in) or withdraw (= take out) money when you need to
banking – the business conducted or services offered by a bank
banknote – a piece of paper money of a particular value that you use to buy things. The usual word is note.
bankruptcy – the state of being unable to pay your debts
barter – an exchange without money of goods or services
benefit(s) – a helpful and useful effect that smth has; money that is paid to people who are unemployed, ill, etc. by the government or through a system of insurance; the advantages that you get from your company in addition to the money you earn
board of directors – the group of people chosen by shareholders to control a company, decide its policies and appoint senior officers
borrow – (antonym: to lend) to receive and use something that belongs to someone else and that you must give back to them later; to borrow money, especially from a bank. Money that you borrow from a bank is called a loan.
broker – someone who buys and sells things such as shares in companies or foreign money for other people
budget – a financial plan that summarizes income and expenditures over a period of time
bulk – unpackaged, homogenous, dry or liquid goods, without mark or count and usually free-flowing, bought and sold by weight or volume, such as grains, oils, and ores
bureaucracy – a complicated official system which is annoying or confusing because it has a lot of rules, processes etc.; the officials who are employed rather than elected to do the work of a government, business etc.
buying behavior – the behaviour of individuals and households who buy goods and services for personal consumption
buying decision – a consumer's decision to make a specific purchase
capacity – the highest sustainable output rate (maximum number of units per month, quarter, or year) that can be achieved with current resources, maintenance strategies, product specifications, etc.
capital accounting – that part of balance of payments which records net changes in a country's international financial assets and liabilities
capital – money or property, especially when it is used to start a business or to produce more wealth
cash – money in the form of coins or notes rather than cheques or credit cards, etc.;money in any form that is available for you to use when you need it
centrally planned economy-an economic system in which a substantial majority of economic activity is carried out through central directions to people and firms as to what they must buy and sell, and at what prices
CEO (chief executive officer) top executive responsible for a firm's overall operations and performance
charter – (in some US states) the name used for the Articles of Incorporation, one of the legal documents that is created when a company is formed
cheque (Am. check) – written order to pay money, i.e., one of a set of printed pieces of paper that you can sign and use instead of money to pay for things; a commonly used means of transferring money through the banking system
coin – a flat disc or piece of metal with special designs on it, used as money. The right to make and issue money is a state monopoly.
command economy – an economic system in which the activities of firms and the allocation of productive resources is determined by government direction rather than market forces
commodity – a product that can be bought and sold
commodity money – money with its own value as a good. At different times different commodities were used as money: iron and bronze, cattle and fish, furs and skins, cowries and precious metals, especially gold and silver. Gold coins are examples of commodity money because gold is worth something as a commodity, not just as a monetary unit.
competition – a situation in which people or organizations try to be more successful than other people or organizations; the people or groups that are competing against you, especially in business or in a sport; an organized event in which people or teams compete against each other
consumer – a person who buys goods or services for their own use
consumer behavior – the way in which consumers choose how to spend their oncomes
consumer goods – goods that people buy for their own use, rather than goods bought by businesses and organizations
consumption – the utilization of economic goods in the satisfaction of wants or in the process of production
convertible currency – a currency that can legally be exchanged for another or for gold. In times of crisis, governments sometimes restrict such exchange, giving rise to black market exchange rates.
chief executive officer – top executive responsible for a firm's overall operations and performance. He or she is the leader of the firm, serves as the main link between the board of directors (the board) and the firm's various parts or levels, and is held solely responsible for the firm's success or failure. One of the major duties of a CEO is to maintain and implement corporate policy, as established by the board. Also called President or managing director, he or she may also be the chairman (or chairperson) of the board
corporate tax – a tax that companies pay on their profits
corporation – a large company or group of companies; a business organisation that has been officially created (incorporated) and is owned by shareholders
costs – the amount of money that a business needs to spend regularly; the amount of money that is paid to produce smth
counterfeit – (adj.) made to look exactly like something else. Counterfeit bank notes, tickets, etc. are illegal copies made in order to trick people
credit card – a small plastic card issued by a bank or a credit company, which enables the lawful owner to make purchases (to obtain goods and services) on credit. A similar card that you use to pay for things directly from your bank account is called a debit card
currency –money that is used in a particular country; the physical embodiment of money, in the forms of paper bills or notes, and metal coins. Money from a country with a strong economy that can be used for buying things in other countries is called hard currency.
customer – someone who buys goods or services from a shop or business
debt – a sum of money that a person or organization owes
decision-making – the process of reaching decisions, especially in a group of people or in an organisation
default – failure to meet an obligation when it comes due
demand – a consumer's willingness and ability to buy a product or service; the quantity of a commodity or service wanted at a specified price and time
demand curve – the graphic representation of demand
denomination – the face value of a banknote or coin
depreciation – a reduction in the value or price of something;the decrease in the economic potential of an asset over its productive or useful life
distribution – the act of sharing things among a large group of people in a planned way; when goods are supplied to shops and companies for them to sell
dividend – an amount of the profits that a company pays to shareholders
economic growth – increases in an economy's total output over a period of time
economic incentives – a reason for doing smth. In market economies, profit, interest, wages, and rent provide economic incentives
economic resources – the assets (things of value) which an economy (or business) may have available to supply and produce goods and services to meet the ever-changing needs and wants of individuals (in the case of a business) and society (in the case of society as a whole)
economics – the social science concerned with the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods and services and the analysis of the commercial activities of a society
economy – the system by which a country's money, goods and services are produced and used, or a country considered in this way; something that you do in order to spend less money; the careful use of money, time, goods etc. so that nothing is wasted
effectivedemand– the level of demand that represents a real intention to purchase by people with the means to pay
effectiveness – the degree to which objectives are achieved and the extent to which targeted problems are solved. In contrast to efficiency, effectiveness is determined without reference to costs and, whereas efficiency means "doing the thing right," effectiveness means "doing the right thing"
efficiency – getting any given results with the smallest possible inputs, or getting the maximum possible output from given resources
elasticity – the responsiveness of a dependent economic variable to changes in influencing factors
elasticity of demand – a measure of the sensitivity of demand for goods or services to changes in price or other marketing variables, such as advertising
electronic money – non-physical currency that is traded and used over the Internet.
electronic transfer – the process of moving money from one account or bank to another that involves the use of electronic systems
employee - a person who is paid to work for smb
employer – a person, company, or organization that pays people to work for them
employment – the state of being employed; the number of people who have jobs; the use of a particular object, method, skill etc. to achieve something
enterprise – a company, organization, or business; the activity of starting and running businesses; a large and complicated project, especially one that is done with a group of other people; the ability to think of new activities or ideas and make them work
entity – a business that exists as a separate unit that has its own legal identity
entrepreneur - a person who makes money by starting or running businesses, especially when this involves taking financial risks
entrepreneurship – the capacity and willingness to develop, organize and manage a business venture along with any of its risks in order to make a profit
environmental economics – a branch of economics study that analyzes financial impacts from environmental policies. Environmental Economics includes impacts such as regulatory compliance costs
equipment – the tools, machines, clothes etc. that you need to do a particular job or activity;the process of equipping someone or something
equity – share in a company from which the owner of the shares receives some of the company's profits rather than a fixed regular payment; a situation in which all people are treated equally and no one has an unfair advantage
exchange rate – the rate, or price, at which one country's currency is exchanged for the currency of another country.
expenditures – the total amount of money that a government, organization, or person spends during a particular period of time
exploitation – the development and use of minerals, forests, oil etc. for business or industry; (sometimes) a wasteful or destructive utilization of a natural resource; an unjust or improper use of another person for one's own profit or advantage
externalities – a loss or gain in the welfare of one party resulting from an activity of another party, without there being any compensation for the losing party
factors of production – resources required for generation of goods or services, generally classified into four major groups: (1) land (including all natural resources), (2) labour (including all human resources), (3) capital (including all man-made resources), and (4) enterprise (which brings all the previous resources together for production). These factors are classified also as management, machines, materials, and money (this, the 4 Ms), or other such nomenclature. More recently, knowledge has come to be recognized as distinct from labour, and as a factor of production in its own right
fiat money – money whose usefulness results, not from any intrinsic value or guarantee that it can be converted into gold or another currency, but only from a government's order (fiat) that it must be accepted as a means of payment.
finance – the management of money by governments, large organizations etc.; (plural) money or other liquid resources of a government, business, group, or individual; the system that includes the circulation of money, the granting of credit, the making of investments, and the provision of banking facilities
fiscal policy – the way in which a government charges taxes or spends money in order to manage the economy
flat tax – fixed tax, a system in which tax is paid at the same rate, however much you earn or spend
free enterprise economy – an economic system in which private business operates in competitive markets to satisfy consumer demands and to maintain equilibrium in the national economy and in which government action in this respect is restricted to protecting the rights of individuals rather than acting as a directing economic force
free market – a market that operates under conditions of perfect competition
functions of money – the roles played by money in an economy. These are a medium of exchange, a measure of value, and a store of value
glut – market situation where the supply of a good or service far exceeds its demand, usually resulting in a substantial fall in its price
gold standard – a monetary system in which both the value of a unit of the currency and the quantity of it in circulation are specified in terms of gold. If two currencies are both on the gold standard, then the exchange rate between them is approximately determined by their two prices in terms of gold
goods – commodities, or physical, tangible items that satisfy some human wants or needs, or something that people find useful or desirable and make an effort to acquire it
gross domestic product – the value of a country's overall output of goods and services (typically during one fiscal year) at market prices, excluding net income from abroad
health insurance – insurance against medical expenses and loss of earnings due to accident or illness
household – all the people living together in a single house or flat/apartment, considered as a unit
income – the money that you earn from your work or that you receive from investments, the government etc.
income tax – the amount of money that you pay to the government according to how much you earn or receive from some other sources
incorporate – (v) – to form a legal company or organisation, for example by obtaining a certificate from the authorities
inflation – a continuing increase in prices and fall in the purchasing value of money, or the rate at which prices increase
input – anything that goes into the production process
insurance – risk-transfer mechanism that ensures full or partial financial compensation for the loss or damage caused by event(s) beyond the control of the insured party
intermediary – a person or an organisation that helps other people or organisations who are unable or unwilling to deal with each other directly to reach an agreement
investment – the action or process of using money in order to make a profit or earn interest, for example by buying shares, bonds, property, etc.; the act or process of buying materials, machines, etc. to make goods to sell
irredeemable – impossible to change or make better; money or something that cannot be exchanged
know-how – commercial and saleable knowledge of how to do a particular thing; experience
labour – work, especially physical work;all the people who work for a company or in a country
labour productivity – rate of output per worker (or a group of workers) per unit of time as compared with an established standard or expected rate of output
labour supply – availability of suitable human resources in a particular labor market
laissez-fair – literally, leave to do; a policy of non-intervention by government in the economy, leaving all decisions to the market
land – includes all physical elements in the wealth of a nation bestowed by nature such as climate, environment, fields, forests, minerals, mountains, lakes, streams, seas, and animals
Law of Supply and Demand – the theory that prices are determined by the interaction of supply and demand: an increase in supply will lower prices if not accompanied by increased demand, and an increase in demand will raise prices unless accompanied by increased supply
lease – a legal agreement which allows you to use a building, car etc. for a period of time, in return for rent
legal tender – money that can legally be used to pay for things in a particular country
liability/liabilities – the amount of money that a company or a person owes; the state of being legally responsible for smth
liquidity – the capacity to turn assets into cash, or the amount of assets in a portfolio that have that capacity. Cash itself (i.e., money) is the most liquid asset.
macroeconomics the study of large economic systems such as those of a whole country or area of the world
management – the conducting or supervising of something (as a business); especially: the executive function of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing, controlling, and supervising any industrial or business project or activity with responsibility for results; the directors and managers who have the power and responsibility to make decisions and oversee an enterprise
manufacturing – the process of converting raw materials, components, or parts into finished goods that meet a customer's expectations or specifications.
margin for profit – ratio of profit after taxes to cost-of-sales, often expressed as a percentage. It is one of the measures of the profitability of a firm, and an indicator of its cost structure.
marginal costs – the increase or decrease in the total cost of a production run for making one additional unit of an item. It is computed in situations where the breakeven point has been reached: the fixed costs have already been absorbed by the already produced items and only the direct (variable) costs have to be accounted for
marginal product – output that results from one additional unit of a factor of production (such as a labour hour or machine hour), all other factors remaining constant
marginal revenue product – the worth of the extra output that can be generated by adding an extra input unit
marginal tax rate – a rate of tax that is paid on your next unit of income; the highest rate of tax that smb pays
Marginalism – the concept that economic behaviour can be determined by analysing the fluctuations in the demand for basic goods and services
market – the area of economic activity in which buyers and sellers come together and the forces of supply and demand affect prices; the available supply of or potential demand for specified goods or services
market economy – an economic system in which the main decisions regarding production, distribution, and exchange are made by the market, i.e. by the forces of supply and demand
market equilibrium – the situation when supply and demand in a market are equal at the prevailing price
means of liquidity – money or goods that can easily be sold to pay debts or anything else that can easily be exchanged for money
means of production – the facilities and resources for producing goods
measure of value – one of the most important properties of money: its ability to be a benchmark for measuring value of goods and services.
medium of exchange - anything that is used, like money, to make payments for goods, services, and assets. For payments between countries with different currencies, if the national currencies are not trusted, another country's currency or gold may be used.
microeconomics – the branch of economics that deals with the behaviour of individual market participants, mainly individual firms or consumers
mixed economy – an economy in which both publicly and privately owned enterprises operate simultaneously
money –anything (any commodity or token) that is generally accepted in payment for goods and services. It serves as a medium of exchange, a measure of value and a store of value
money supply – the quantity of currency in circulation plus the amount of demand deposits. The money supply, together with the amount of real economic activity in a country, is an important determinant of its price level and its exchange rate
natural resources – naturally occurring materials such as coal, fertile land, etc., that can be used by man
necessity – something that you need to have in order to live
needs and wants – unsatisfied human desires that motivate their actions and enhance their fulfilment when met
opportunity cost a benefit, profit, or value of something that must be given up to acquire or achieve something else
output – the amount of goods or work produced by a person, machine, factory etc.
- ownership – the ultimate and exclusive right conferred by a lawful claim or title, and subject to certain restrictions to enjoy, occupy, possess, rent, sell, use, give away, or even destroy an item of property
partnership – a business that is owned by a group of professional people that work together and share the profits
perishable goods = perishables – things, especially foodstuffs, likely to decay after a short time if it is not kept in the proper conditions
population – the number of people living in a particular area, country etc.; all of the people who live in a particular area;
price system – the use of prices to allocate scarce resources
private enterprise – the economic system in which industry or business is owned by individuals and independent companies and is not controlled by the government; a business that is owned by individuals or other companies, not by the government
private sector – the part of a country’s economy that is not under the direct control of the government, but is owned by individuals and independent companies
privatization – sale or return of publicly owned enterprises to private ownership and control
product – the good or service one receives in an exchange
production – the processes and methods used to transform tangible inputs (raw materials, semi-finished goods, subassemblies) and intangible inputs (ideas, information, knowledge) into goods or services
productive resources – materials, labour or money which is used to create goods and services
productivity – the output of goods and services as measured per unit of time, or per person, per company, per industry, or for the whole economy
profit – the surplus remaining after total costs are deducted from total revenue, and the basis on which tax is computed and dividend is paid. It is the best known measure of success in an enterprise
profitability – when a business or an activity makes a profit, or the amount of profit it makes
property – the thing or things that someone owns; a building, a piece of land, or both together
proprietor – the owner of a business
purchasing power - the amount of of real goods and services that money will buy, usually measured (inversely) by the CPI (consumer price index); value of a unit of money considered in terms of how much you can buy with it
ratio – a relationship between two amounts, represented by a pair of numbers showing how much bigger one amount is than the other
rationing – government allocation of scarce resources and consumer goods, usually adopted during wars, famines, or other national emergencies
raw material – basic substance in its natural, modified, or semi-processed state, used as an input to a production process for subsequent modification or transformation into a finished good
representative money – paper currency backed by a government or bank’s promise to redeem it for a given weight of precious metal (gold or silver). Money of this type was based on the gold standard, and, in theory, could be exchanged for a fixed amount of gold. For example, the US dollar was convertible to gold until 1934.
reserve currency – a currencythat is consideredstrong and reliable and is used a lot in international trade. National banks keep large stores of reserve currencies
resource – an economic or productive factor required to accomplish an activity, or as means to undertake an enterprise and achieve desired outcome
retailing – the business of selling goods to ultimate consumers for personal or household consumption
returns on capital – ratio measuring the profitability of a firm expressed as a percentage of funds acquired from investors and lenders
revenue – the income generated from sale of goods or services, or any other use of capital or assets, associated with the main operations of an organization before any costs or expenses are deducted; the income accruing from taxation to a government during a specified period of time, usually a year
salary – a fixed regular payment made usually on a monthly basis by an employer to an employee, especially a professional or white-collar worker
scarcity – a limit to the supply of productive resources or consumer goods in relation to producers' or consumers' demand for them
securities – financing or investment instruments (some negotiable, others not) bought and sold in financial markets, such as bonds, debentures, notes, options, shares (stocks), and warrants
services – intangible products such as accounting, banking, cleaning, consultancy, education, insurance, expertise, medical treatment, or transportation
shareholder – a person or group that owns shares in a company or business
shortage – a situation when there is not enough of the people or things that are needed
small-scale decision-making unit – the informal group of individuals within an organization that decides which items the organization should buy
sole proprietorship – a business that is owned and run by one person
stock – the value of all the shares a company can make available; a number of shares in a company that one investor holds; a supply of a particular type of thing that a shop has available to sell; the total amount of something that is available to be used in a particular area
stock market – a place where shares are bought and sold, i.e. a stock exchange
store of value – one of three basic functions of money: the ability to retain value over time, and therefore be useful for those who wish to sell something now and not spend he proceeds until later
substitute – a good or service which can be used instead of another
supply – the amount of a good or service offered for sale
supply curve – a curve showing the amount that firms in an industry are willing to supply at each possible price
surplus – an amount of something left over when requirements have been met; an excess of income or assets over expenditure or liabilities in a given period
sustainability – continued development or growth, without significant deterioration of the environment and depletion of natural resources on which human well-being depends
tax – an amount of money that you must pay to the government according to your income, property, goods etc. and that is used to pay for public services;compulsory monetary contribution to the state's revenue, assessed and imposed by a government on the activities, enjoyment, expenditure, income, occupation, privilege, property, etc., of individuals and organizations
tax loophole – a provision in the laws governing taxation that allows people to reduce their taxes
tax rate – the percentage of an amount of money or of the value of smth that has to be paid as tax
taxation – a means by which governments finance their expenditure by imposing charges on citizens and corporate entities
trade – the activity of buying, selling, or exchanging goods or services between people, firms, or countries
trade-off – giving up one thing in order to obtain something else
traditional economy – an economic system that allocates scarce resources according to customs; change and growth are very slow; people do what their parents did before them; and most goods are produced and consumed locally
transaction – a business deal; the action or process of buying or selling something
traveller’s cheque (AmE. traveler’s check) – a printed piece of paper that you sign and can exchange it for money of a foreign country when you are travelling. Traveller’s cheques can be replaced if they get lost or stolen.
undercapitalization – a situation where a business does not have sufficient stockholders' funds for its size of operations. An undercapitalized firm does not have enough cash to carry out its functions and usually does not qualify for bank or other loans due to its unacceptably high loan-to-equity ratio. Under capitalization is one of the major causes of business start-ups failures
unemployed – person of employment age (generally 16 to 55 years) who does not have a paying job but is available for work and is actively seeking a job
unemployment – total number of able men and women of working age seeking paid work
unit of account - a basic function of money, providing a unit of measurement for defining, recording, and comparing value.
urbanization – an increase in a population in cities and towns versus rural areas
value – the amount that something is worth, measured especially in money
venture capital – capital invested in a project in which there is a substantial element of risk
venture capitalists private investors who provide venture capital to promising business ventures
wage – (often plural) a fixed regular payment for work, typically paid on a daily, hourly, weekly or piece work basis
warrant – an official document giving someone the right to do something, for example buy shares in a company; a legal document that is signed by a judge, allowing the police to take a particular action
wealth – a large amount of money, property etc. that a person or country owns
wear-and-tear – gradual physical deterioration of an asset from age, use, and/or weathering
welfare – practical or financial help that is provided, often by the government, for people that need it; the health, happiness, and fortunes of a person or group
workforce – total number of a country's population employed in the armed forces and civilian jobs, plus those unemployed people who are actually seeking paying work; total number of employees (usually excluding the management) on an employer's payroll
yield – the amount of profits, crops etc. that something produces;the annual income earned from an investment, expressed usually as a percentage of the money invested
Bibliography
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Internet Resources
governmentisgood.com
http://blog.pappastax.com
http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/
http://economics.about.com/od/money/a/Types-Of-Money.htm
http://infousa.state.gov/economy/overview/mktec6.html
http://kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2011/07/what-is-money-meaning-definition.html
http://subramoneyplanning.blogspot.com/2011/11/money-its-functions
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Functions-of-Money
http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/
http://www.educationworld.com/maillist2.shtml
http://www.franchisedirect.com
http://www.whatiseconomics.org/
CONTENTS
UNIT 1. What is economics?
Text A:What is economics?
Text B: What economics isn't
Text C: Micro, Macro and Fantasy Economics
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: Introductions
GRAMMAR: Present Tenses. The Present Simple (Indefinite) and the Present Continuous Tenses
UNIT 2. Factors of production
Text A:Factors of production
Text B: Entrepreneurship
Text C: Factors of Production for an Innovation Economy
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: In the office
GRAMMAR: Present Tenses. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Tenses
UNIT 3. Types of economic systems
Text A: Types of economic systems
Text B: Command economy
Text C: Good (and bad) models
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: Finding the way
GRAMMAR: Past Tenses. The Past Simple (Indefinite) and the Past Continuous Tenses
UNIT 4. Demand and supply
Text A: Demand and supply
Text B: The role of price
Text C: Two factors that affect labor supply and demand
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: Making an appointment
GRAMMAR: The Past Prefect Tense. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense. Past Tenses Review.
UNIT 5. Free-enterprise system
Text A: What is free enterprise?
Text B: Role of government in a free-enterprise economy
Text C: Invisible hand
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: At the airport.
GRAMMAR: Future Tenses. The Imperative Mood.
UNIT 6. Forms of business organisations
Text A: Forms of business organisations
Text B: Nonprofit organisations
Text C: Franchising
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: At the hotel
GRAMMAR: Nouns. Articles.
UNIT 7. Money
Text A.Money and its role in the economy
Text B. A Glimpse of the American, British and Euro currencies
Text C. A Barter Way of Doing Business
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: On the telephone
GRAMMAR: Determiners. Numerals
UNIT 8. Taxes
Text A: Taxes
Text B: Taxation in the UK
Text C: Taxes are good
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: In company
GRAMMAR: Pronouns. Adjectives. Adverbs. Comparison